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It is a well-known fact that Maithili culture is deeply mango-oriented. The entire Mithilanchal region is steeped in the essence, fragrance, and taste of mangoes. Alongside butter, fish, makhan (a water-grown dry fruit), betel nuts, and paan, mangoes are cherished cultural symbols. As a popular Maithili saying goes, even heaven lacks the delights of these enchanting foods.

Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore’s fondness for mangoes is legendary. He once remarked that if he didn’t get to eat mangoes during the season, the entire year felt fruitless to him.

Mango is among the world’s most beloved tropical fruits. It is cultivated not just in Nepal’s Tarai-Madhes but also in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Myanmar, and as far as Taiwan and Honolulu, USA. Buddhist monks are credited with introducing mangoes to Malaysia and East Asia around the fifth century. Today, nearly half of the world’s mangoes are grown in India, which produces about 15 million tonnes annually. Of this, around 15 percent is exported while the rest is consumed domestically.

In Mithilanchal, mangoes have held cultural significance since ancient times. Almost every village in the region has its own mango orchard. Janakpur, the ancient capital of Mithila, has long been renowned for its groves. One such orchard, the culturally revered Tirhutia Gachhi, still exists today. Every year, the grand Mithila Mahotsav is held in this very orchard. Legend has it that even Lord Buddha, the Light of Asia, stayed here during his visit to Janakpur.

The exchange of mangoes during the season is considered the most treasured of gifts. For newlyweds, mangoes are regarded as heavenly presents. Even gold, silver, or diamonds are considered incomplete wedding gifts if mangoes are missing. Their presence enhances the joy and sanctity of marriage ceremonies and strengthens familial bonds.

Mangoes flourish during summer and the monsoon. They are celebrated for their beauty, juiciness, and delectable taste. Delicacies made from mangoes include mango flame, mango tart, mango scones, mango and celery muffins, mango crumble, and fresh-cut mango served in chocolate cones with mango mousse. Revered as the “king of fruits,” mangoes are woven deeply into Maithili tradition.

The tropical climate of the Madhes region makes it ideal for mango cultivation. Numerous varieties thrive in its fertile soil. Larger types include Bombaiya, Maldah, Calcutia, Supriya, and Amrapalika, while smaller ones like Bizzu are equally sweet and attractive. Bhadaiya mangoes ripen in August and September, while the unique Langada has a taste that defies translation. Some Bizzu mangoes are so juicy and vibrant that they are known by colorful names like Senuria, whose color resembles vermillion, and Keraba, which is shaped like a banana. Other seasonal favorites include Tengaria, Sukul, Sipia, Kodaiya, Nakuwa, Laduwa, Lichiawa, Chauriya, Bairiya, and Rodi. Barmasiya is one exceptional variety available year-round, thanks to cold storage. Once limited to a three-month window, mangoes can now be found in the market for more than half the year. They come in many forms—round, oval, oblong, or kidney-shaped—and a spectrum of colors from yellow and pink to green and red.

In India, the diversity of mango varieties is astounding. From Sindhuri, Dussehri, Chausa, Fazli, and Lucknow in the north to Raspuri, Safeda (also called Bainganpalli), Neelam, Himayat, Thamboor, Priyoor, Malgova, Malika, and the famously sweet Kesar in the west and south, each variety has its distinct flavor and color. Regional delicacies abound as well. In Maharashtra, mango pulp is mixed with sweet yogurt to create Amrakhand. In north India, mangoes are sun-dried and preserved as Murabba. In the south, mango sambhar is a popular lentil-based gravy with a tamarind and mango twist, while in north India, mango-flavored daal is enjoyed during summer. Amras, a sweet mango pulp juice often blended with sugar or milk, is eaten with rice, bread, or pooris in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan. The Konkan region transforms mango pulp into a jam called Mangada. Gujaratis prepare Chunda, a delicacy made from grated raw mango. Mango lassi, a refreshing blend of mango and yogurt, is a favorite throughout South Asia.

Mangoes play a vital role in rituals and ceremonies. They are offered to deities and consumed during religious festivals and family gatherings. Their sacred status is linked to their abundance during the summer and their role in alleviating seasonal food shortages in the Madhes. Rich in vitamins A, B, and C, mangoes are both nutritious and easy to digest.

Unripe mangoes are also popular. They are used in making a variety of chutneys and pickles. Ripe mangoes are preserved as Amot, a homemade treat consumed year-round. Mango trees belong to the species Mangifera indica, of the Sumane family, and thrive best in hot, humid, and dry weather. The fruit becomes tastier and juicier when matured under dry conditions. For Maithils, the ultimate joy lies in sucking the fresh juice of ripe mangoes straight from the orchard.

Mithila holds a popular mythology around mangoes. According to legend, when Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati descended to earth, they missed the heavenly mangoes of their celestial abode. At Parvati’s request, Shiva created the mango tree by divine power, thus introducing this “fruit of the gods” to the earth. Since then, the mango has been considered sacred, and its cultivation has spread from India to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, Pakistan, and beyond. Mangoes also find mention in ancient Sanskrit literature, including the Valmiki Ramayan, affirming their place in South Asia’s spiritual and cultural legacy.

Mangoes are not just cultural icons but also instruments of soft diplomacy. Despite political tensions, India and Pakistan have traditionally exchanged crates of their best mangoes as seasonal gifts. This symbolic act, often dubbed “mango diplomacy,” has helped soften relations even in times of hostility.

Janakpur’s mangoes, with their special aroma and flavor, have gained international attention. Thailand’s late King Bhumibol Adulyadej, in his book The Story of Maha Janak, described two mango trees from Mithila and even ordered ten saplings from Janakpur to plant in his royal garden in Bangkok. This royal gesture sparked interest among Thai people, especially the youth, who are now curious to visit Janakpur, not only for its sacred heritage but also for its mangoes, which they see as uniquely flavorful.

Mangoes are a nutritional powerhouse. Rich in a wide range of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, they come in over 1,000 known varieties. Though native to South and Southeast Asia, mangoes are now cultivated in Central and South America, Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula. High in calories and packed with nutrients, mangoes contain phenolic compounds with strong antioxidant and anticancer properties. Their high iron content makes them ideal for pregnant women and individuals with anemia. Vitamins A, E, and selenium help protect against heart disease, while vitamin C and calcium are believed to prevent internal bleeding. Mangoes are also said to improve digestion, boost appetite, and aid detoxification. Their anti-inflammatory properties may alleviate asthma symptoms.

Traditional remedies from mango bark and black salt are used to treat diarrhea, while mango juice is believed to enhance memory and prevent mental fatigue. Vitamin E is said to support hormonal balance and improve reproductive health. Because they are rich in carbohydrates and fiber, mangoes are recommended for weight gain and digestive health. An average-sized mango can provide nearly 40 percent of daily fiber needs.

Around the world, mango pulp is used in jams, jellies, desserts, salsas, and relishes. It has also found a place in non-vegetarian dishes—paired with fish and chicken, or used in curries in Thailand. In the Philippines, green mango is enjoyed with bagoong, a fermented fish or shrimp paste. In Latin America, peeled mangoes on sticks are popular street snacks. In India, mango parathas and the ever-loved Amras are staples in many households. Even Japanese cuisine has adapted mango into sweet sushi.

From ancient mythology to modern medicine, from Janakpur’s sacred groves to international statecraft, the mango is far more than a fruit in Mithila. It is a symbol of generosity, health, sensuality, and cultural pride. Little wonder that for Maithils, the pleasure of sucking a ripe mango under a summer sky still defines the very taste of life itself.

Nepal is a landlocked country. While it lacks scenic sea beaches, it is rich in mighty, milky rivers with beautiful banks. Kathmandu, the capital and a cosmopolitan city, lies on the banks of the Bagmati River. The world-famous Pashupatinath Temple also stands alongside this river.

Tragically, this sacred river is now enormously polluted, and its natural beauty is rapidly disappearing. Soon, it may lose all aesthetic appeal. Some years ago, a green belt stretched along the Bagmati, but that now feels like a distant memory. There was once an ambitious plan to build a park, which failed before it could even begin. Today, the riverbank remains filthy. Few people choose to walk there due to the foul odor from the polluted water. The area is littered with dirt, dust, mud, cow dung, and even human waste.

The encroachment of riverbanks in Nepal poses a serious threat to the environment. Similarly, the beaches of SAARC countries, like India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, also suffer from encroachment.

In India, some beaches, such as those in Mumbai, are fairly well maintained. Goa boasts particularly scenic shores, and Chennai has one of the world’s longest and most beautiful beaches. Still, problems are mounting alongside the growing number of visitors. The beaches of Kolkata and Karachi, by contrast, are poorly maintained. In both Sri Lanka and India, vendors selling food items line the shores, contributing to filth and mismanagement. Visitors, both locals and foreigners, frequently litter the coasts.

The Maldives has done well in maintaining many of its beaches, but the recent boom in seaside hotel and resort construction poses new threats to the marine environment.

Beaches in other parts of the world, like Port of Spain, are sunny, sandy, and serene. However, the growing influx of visitors from countries such as the US and EU is straining these environments as well.

Globally, similar patterns emerge: the condition of coastal and riverine environments depends heavily on how well they are managed. For instance, the coasts of Honolulu, Hawaii, and Singapore are clean and well-maintained. In contrast, the beaches of Hong Kong, Chittagong, and Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh are in disrepair. People sunbathe and celebrate freely along these beaches, while beautiful palm trees that once supported ecological balance now stand surrounded by waste.

In Nepal, river rafting is a booming business, yet little concern is shown for the deteriorating condition of riverbanks. The environment, after all, is what surrounds us. Aesthetics are closely tied to our surroundings. Environmental aesthetics refers to the study and appreciation of natural beauty.

Aesthetics has been defined as “the study of beauty in nature and art of its character, condition, and conformity to law.” Human beings have always been lovers of beauty, and nature is the storehouse of eternal beauty.

The Tarai-Madhes region of Nepal is home to a vast network of rivers. In Jhapa district, there are rivers such as Mawa, Ratua, Biring, Mechi, and Kankai. Morang district has a dozen rivers, including Bakraha, Chisang, Khadam, and Lohandra. Sunsari is home to rivers like the Koshi, Kokaha, and Budhi. Moving westward, Saptari’s rivers include Trijuga, Khando, Mahuli, and Balan. In Siraha, rivers such as Kamala, Ghurmi, Manbati, and Gagan flow across the land. Dhanusha features rivers like Kamala, Ratu, and Charnath, while Mahottari includes the Ratukhola and Marha.

Further west, Sarlahi has the Bagmati, Lakhandei, and Jhim rivers. Rautahat features rivers like Lalbakaiya and Anuwa, and Bara includes the Gangol and Tilawe. Chitwan is known for the Gandak, Rapti, and Kayar rivers. In Nawalparasi, rivers such as Turiya and Arnkhola flow, while Rupandehi is home to Tinau, Rohini, Danav, and Ghodaha, among many others. Kapilvastu has rivers like Banganga and Surai, and Dang district contains both the Rapti and Babai rivers.

In Banke, rivers like Maan, Duduwa, and Rohini are notable, while Bardiya features the Karnali, Babai, and Bheri. Kailali’s major rivers include the Karnali, Mohana, and Pathraiya, and in Kanchanpur, rivers such as Mahakali and Chaudhara define the landscape.

River pollution is becoming a global crisis. The international community must act urgently to protect these vital water bodies from pollution, neglect, and even acts of violence or terrorism. Rivers like the Tigris and Euphrates—cradles of human civilization—must be preserved. The Gangetic plain, too, holds immense cultural and historical significance.

It is the duty of institutions like the United Nations to safeguard such critical natural assets. In extreme cases, even deploying peacekeeping forces may be necessary. In Nepal, volunteers, civil society groups, the army, police, and concerned citizens clean the Bagmati every Saturday. Yet these efforts lack consistency and state support. Keeping the Bagmati clean is not just an environmental obligation; it is a civilizational responsibility. The river is sacred in every sense.

Encouragingly, there have been some positive developments. In New Zealand, the Whanganui River was declared a living entity, with two guardians appointed to protect its rights, making it the first river in the world to receive such legal status. Similarly, India’s High Court in Uttarakhand ruled that the Ganges and its tributary Yamuna, both deeply sacred, have legal rights to be protected and represented in court. They are now to be represented by key officials, including the Chief Secretary of the state and the head of the National Mission for Clean Ganga. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi has pledged to restore the Ganges to its original glory.

Globally, oceans play a critical role. They contain 97 percent of the world’s water and support the livelihoods of over 3bn people. The estimated global market value of oceanic and coastal resources is $3trn. Oceans absorb around 30 percent of human-generated carbon dioxide, helping mitigate climate change. Oceanic fisheries employ more than 200m people, directly or indirectly. For many, oceans are also the main source of dietary protein.

Despite their importance, oceans face mounting threats. Around 8m metric tonnes of plastic enter the oceans every year. Their preservation must be a top global priority.

Lumbini is a serene and sacred land in Nepal where Buddha, the Light of Asia, was born. Also known as the Enlightened One, Buddha was formerly Prince Siddhartha Gautam of the Shakya clan. He later became known as Shakyamuni and ultimately, the Buddha. Born approximately 2,700 years ago, Siddhartha Gautam’s birthplace has since been revered as a holy site for Buddhists across the world.

Located in the Rupandehi district of southern Nepal’s Tarai plains, Lumbini is a vital Buddhist pilgrimage site. According to tradition, Queen Mayadevi gave birth to Siddhartha Gautam here in 563 BCE.

Rishikesh Shah writes: “To the east of Kosala, there was in ancient times a republic of the Sakyas known as Kapilvastu. The republic was situated between the Gandaki and Rapti rivers. The Sakyas were Kshatriyas of the Ikshvaku clan, who had established their own republic after severing ties with the kingdom of Kosala. Their land extended northwards to the Himalayan ranges and southwards to a grove of sal trees called Lumbini. It was in this grove that Buddha, the founder of the Buddhist religion, was born. Lumbini is now called Rupandehi.”

Born into royalty, Siddhartha Gautam was the son of King Suddhodhan and Queen Mayadevi. He enjoyed a life of luxury and comfort. However, upon venturing beyond the palace walls, he was deeply moved by sights of suffering—a beggar, a cripple, a corpse, and a holy man. This encounter awakened in him a desire to discover the root cause of human suffering and find a path to liberation. Renouncing his royal life, he left behind his wife, Yashodhara, and son, Rahul, shedding all royal attachments to live as a wandering ascetic.

Through intense meditation and austerity, Siddhartha ultimately attained enlightenment under a Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya on a full moon night. He experienced direct realization of Nirvana at the age of 35 and dedicated the rest of his life to preaching love, compassion, and the path to liberation until his death at 84.

The teachings of Buddha are centered on the Four Noble Truths. First, life is inherently filled with suffering. Second, the root cause of this suffering is ignorance. Third, it is possible to eliminate ignorance, and therefore suffering. Finally, the way to eliminate ignorance is through the Noble Eightfold Path. This path consists of Right Understanding, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. Additionally, Buddha organized his teachings under three core principles: Prajna (intellectual wisdom), Shila (moral discipline), and Samadhi (spiritual practice). These three correspond closely to the Hindu concepts of Jnana (knowledge), Karma (action), and Bhakti (devotion).

Historical and cultural significance 

Emperor Ashoka of India became a devoted follower of Buddha after the devastating Kalinga war. In 250 BCE, he visited Lumbini and erected a commemorative pillar bearing inscriptions about Buddha’s birth. The inscription reads:

“King Priyadarshi, beloved of the gods, having been anointed twenty years, came in person and worshipped here, saying, ‘Here the Blessed One was born.’ King Priyadarshi exempted the village of Lumbini from taxes and bestowed wealth upon it.”

Ashoka also sent missionaries, including his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra, to spread Buddhism to regions such as Sri Lanka. The site includes a sacred pond, Puskarni, where Queen Mayadevi is said to have bathed before giving birth and also washed the newborn Buddha.

Lumbini is now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is being developed under the Master Plan by the Lumbini Development Trust. The area includes monasteries, stupas, meditation centers, and temples built by countries like Japan, China, Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, France, and Germany. Even Muslim-majority Bangladesh has announced plans to build a guesthouse for pilgrims, as noted by Ambassador Mashfee Binte Shams.

Revival and rediscovery

Lumbini had fallen into obscurity until its rediscovery in 1895 by General Khadga Samsher JB Rana and German archaeologist Alois Anton Fuhrer. Perceval Landon writes: “On 1 Dec 1895, close to the General’s camp, the great Ashokan monolith was discovered in a thicket above the surrounding fields. The site was known by the name Rummindee—a local adaptation of Lumbini.”

Chinese pilgrim records had previously described the site, including the shrine, pond, and pillar. Despite early restrictions on access, Fuhrer glimpsed a sculpture of Mayadevi inside the shrine. The art of sculpture thrived here long before the Gupta period, as evidenced by stone and terracotta statues found during excavations.

Modern-day Lumbini and its challenges

Lumbini has received increased global attention since UN Secretary-General U Thant’s visit in 1970. However, as noted by British scholar David Seddon during his 2014 visit, the site remains in a neglected state. He observed that the Ashokan pillar is submerged in an overgrown pond surrounded by broken railings and rubbish, calling for “loving care” to preserve the heritage.

Environmental degradation is another serious concern. According to Ram Charitra Sah, Director of the Center for Public Health and Environmental Development, the proliferation of factories in the region is threatening the ecological sanctity of this sacred land.

Veteran journalist Kanak Mani Dixit has highlighted how despite Lumbini’s prominence, other archaeological treasures like Simraungadh have been neglected. He remarks that while Lumbini has become a central site in the Tarai, Buddhism remains somewhat distant from the region’s current cultural landscape.

Modern scholarship has yet to satisfactorily determine the exact date of the Buddha's Nirvana (death). Nevertheless, India and the world recently celebrated the 2,500th Nirvana Day of the Buddha based on the widely accepted timeline: his birth in 624 BC, enlightenment (Sambodhi) in 589 BC, and Parinirvana in 544 BC.

A survey conducted by Giovanni Verardi identified 136 archaeological sites of varying sizes in Kapilvastu district, with approximately another hundred sites in Rupandehi. Together, these form an extensive landscape that still requires detailed archaeological study. This abundance of sites highlights the need to shift our approach from conserving individual locations to understanding Greater Lumbini as a vast cultural landscape. Planning for Greater Lumbini must be grounded in the establishment of management frameworks that address cultural heritage, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic development.

A declaration made during the 20th General Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Sydney, Australia, endorsed Nepal’s proposal to recognize, declare, and develop Lumbini as the fountain of world peace and the holiest pilgrimage site for Buddhists. The declaration further urged that the three historical sites—Kapilvastu, Ramagrama, and Devadaha—be similarly developed and studied, alongside continued excavation, conservation, and research efforts. It also emphasized the need for a feasibility study on establishing an International Buddhist University in Lumbini and recommended identifying a suitable institution to serve as an associate center of the World Buddhist University in Thailand.

Delegates also called on the Government of Nepal to make the Lumbini Development Trust (LDT) a permanent and autonomous body and urged the United Nations to review the UN Lumbini Development Committee.

Tourism expert Kai Weise has stressed that tourism management in the region must consider the impact of the new airport, the rising number of visitors (both local and international), and the infrastructure and services needed to support them. He also emphasized the importance of protecting the environmental context of Greater Lumbini, including flood management, pollution control (from industry and other sources), and the preservation of significant landscapes through land use regulations. Opportunities for regional development, he noted, should focus on tourism as well as local livelihoods based on agriculture, handicrafts, and other sustainable services, including appropriate housing.

As the great scientist Albert Einstein once said, “If there is any religion that would cope with modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism.” Similarly, notable figures such as Hollywood actor Richard Gere, Burmese political leader Aung San Suu Kyi, and world-renowned golfer Tiger Woods have all expressed admiration for the principles of Buddhism.

The culture of Mithila is deeply rooted in its sacred rivers. Ancient Mithila is blessed with many silvery rivers, including the Kaushiki (Koshi), Kamala, Dugdhamati, Yamuni, Jibachha, Geruka, Jhim, Bagmati, and Lakshmana (Lakhandei).

Kaushiki or Koshi

A legend in the Valmiki Ramayana tells the story of King Kush, whose son Vishwamitra was a revered sage. Vishwamitra’s daughter, Kaushiki, was deeply devout and married the sage Richik. They had three sons.

Once, King Ambrish performed an Ashwamedha Yagna, but Indra, the king of gods, stole the sacrificial horse. Distressed, the king and sages searched for a human substitute to complete the ritual. Despite offering great wealth, no one came forward. Finally, King Ambrish begged Richik to sacrifice one of his sons. Reluctantly, Richik offered his middle son, Sunahsen.

Kaushiki, overcome with grief, wept ceaselessly until her body dissolved into a river—the Kaushiki. Sunahsen was later saved by Vishwamitra’s grace. Kaushiki became a beloved companion of Janaki (Sita) and now flows as the Koshi, nourishing Mithila with its waters.

Kamala 

Kamala was the daughter of a Brahmin who lived on the Mandarachal Mountain. She came to perform penance in a beautiful cave of the Himalayas, continuing her meditation for a thousand years. At last, a radiant glow burst forth from her mouth. The king of the mountain approached her and asked who she was. Pleased with her devotion, he said, "I am very much pleased with you. Ask for whatever you desire; I will fulfill all your wishes."

Hearing this, Kamala prayed, "If you are truly pleased with my penance, grant that I be as sacred as the Ganges." Himban, the king of the mountain, blessed her, saying, "You are as dear to me as the Ganges herself. All her sacred qualities will reside in you." Kamala was deeply satisfied with this grace.

Thus, the Kamala River became an intimate and playful Sakhi (companion) of Sita. Rivers such as Shree Triyuga, Narayani, Lakshmana, Adhobara, Vanbhosha, Mandana, Yamuni, Ghumra, and Virja are also considered Sita’s companions. They are said to have visited Sita at night to play with her.

The background of the puja is provided by the Kamala Ka Geet (Song of Kamala), which narrates her brave and divine deeds, accompanied by the Dholaka, Mridanga, and Jhala. The song is soothing to the ears, and the performance as a whole is exhilarating. Similarly, the Koshi Puja is celebrated with the Koshi Ka Geet in the same style in parts of Tirhut.

Dugdhamati 

In no other part of the world is there mention of a river of milk, but Mithila, a land rich in mythology and legend, is home to such a river—Dugdhamati. The literal meaning of Dugdhamati is "river of milk." When Janaki, the daughter of King Janak, was born, she began to cry. The earth, regarded as her mother since she emerged from its womb, manifested itself in the form of Kamdhenu—the divine cow—and nursed her with its milk. Thus Janaki was nurtured. It is said that the Dugdhamati River was born from the overflow of milk from Kamdhenu’s countless udders. Even today, its waters are milky, sweet, and tasteful. Many saints and sages meditated on its sacred banks, chanting the name of Lord Rama. Among them were King Sutichhan, Rambaba, Premdas, and Vimala Sharan—renowned saints of their time.

Even today, despite disturbances from thieves and robbers, many saints continue to chant and meditate along the banks of this sacred river. Dugdhamati remains a renowned center of religious and spiritual devotion.

Yamuni

The Yamuni River flows about five miles from Janakpur. It should not be confused with the famous Yamuna of Gokul and Vrindavan, associated with Lord Krishna and the Gopinis. This Yamuni is distinct but equally revered. Today, sisters worship their brothers on its banks during Bhai Tika (the second day of Kartik’s bright fortnight), a day of familial devotion. Traditionally, families also share meals here on this auspicious occasion.

Jibachha 

Located near Kanchanvan (the golden forest), the Jibachha River is believed to bless those who bathe in it with the boon of sons and daughters and a life of happiness and longevity.

Geruka 

The Geruka River flows about four miles west of Janakpur. It is considered as meritorious and spiritually fruitful as Rajgriha in Bihar, where pilgrims seek salvation. Geruka is a famous pilgrimage site in Mithila, and a grand fair is held here during Malmas (an extra month in the Hindu lunar calendar, considered auspicious for religious observances).

The worship of Salhesh is deeply rooted in the traditions of the Dusadh caste, a historically marginalized group within the Madhesi community. Though the caste system continues to influence social structures across the Madhes from east to west, the reverence for Salhesh unites people across caste lines during his annual celebration.

Salhesh, also known as Shailesh—meaning ‘King of the Mountains’—is regarded as the domestic deity of the Dusadhs. He is believed to have lived during the 7th or 8th century in Mahisautha, where he was known as King Jayabardhan Salhesh. He was the eldest of four siblings: his brothers were Motiram and Budhesar, his sister Banaspati, and his niece Karikanha. Banaspati was known as the mother queen of Bagh Fort. The stories of Salhesh form the basis of a vibrant dance-drama performed by a priest, accompanied by a large traditional drum known as the dholak.

According to tradition, Salhesh was the first chaukidar (night watchman) of the village, earning him heroic status within the Dusadh caste. Their traditional role was to guard villages at night, receiving paddy and coins as payment. In every village across the Madhes region, there exists a shrine dedicated to Salhesh, known as Salhes Sthan. These shrines, usually found under the sacred peepal tree on the village outskirts, consist of clay platforms representing characters from Salhesh folklore.

Worship at these shrines is conducted with deep reverence. Devotees offer rice, incense, sandals, and other ritual items, accompanied by folk songs, such as this one from the Salhesh Ballad:

Khan khan rahaichhi ham Beluka Garhme
Khan rahaichhi Sarabag me
Manik Dah me snan karatchhe, Garh pokhari me Mai sumarait chhi
Bhagaichhi ta yeki Maliniya ke khatir
Gadhpakariya me Maiya ke sumirichhi

 (Sometimes I live in Belukagarh, sometimes in Sarabag.
I bathe in Manik Dah and remember Mother Goddess Durga.
I wander in search of my beloved Maliniya,
And recall the goddess in Gadhpakariya.)

As a young man, Salhesh is said to have bathed daily in Manik Dah, a local pond, before heading to a garden—now known as Salhesh Phulbari—to pluck fresh flowers for his beloved. These routines have become symbolic rituals reenacted during worship. Salhesh is revered not only as a historical figure but as a cultural icon whose myth is woven into the social fabric of Mithila, both in Nepal and across the border in India.

As cultural expert Prem Khatri puts it: “Salhesh lives in the minds of the people of Mithila—from Nepal Tarai to the holy Ganges in India. His legends blur national borders, allowing human connection to transcend political boundaries during festivals like Ram Navami (Chaite Dashain).”

The dance-drama honoring Salhesh is performed annually with grandeur, resembling a village fair. While the deity is primarily worshipped by the Dusadh community, people of all castes participate. The rituals are conducted in open spaces, without elaborate temple structures. A priest, believed to be spiritually possessed by the deity, leads the ceremony. He shivers, chants mantras, walks on the edge of a sword, and distributes rice and flowers as blessings—actions meant to signify Salhesh’s divine presence.

Renowned Indian scholar Radha Krishna Chaudhary writes: “It is practically a one-man show—the priest trembles, shouts, walks on swords, sings ballads, and blesses the audience. The entire performance is thrilling, sometimes inspiring, and often a delight to the senses.”

Salhesh is especially honored during the Nepali New Year at places like Mahisautha, Salhesh Phulbari, and Patari Pokhari. In Siraha, the Haram tree near Salhesh’s temple is a source of wonder. Each year, a white garland mysteriously blooms in the tree’s center, believed to represent Salhesh’s unfulfilled lover, Dauna Malin. Legend has it she appears once a year in floral form to spend a fleeting moment with Salhesh before fading away. Despite local botanists’ interest, this phenomenon remains unexplained and continues to attract pilgrims and researchers from both Nepal and India.

Historically viewed as a lower caste, the Dusadhs—also known as Paswan—were denied equal status for centuries. However, in modern democratic Nepal, caste-based discrimination is on the decline, and all communities are increasingly seen as equals. Today, Dusadhs participate fully in social and civic life, and their patron deity, Salhesh, has become a symbol of resilience, pride, and cultural identity.

Another important site, Salhesgarh, contains an ancient mound believed to be linked to the deity. It houses a small shrine (Gahwar) to Salhesh, now in a state of neglect but still held sacred by the community.

Mithila is a land of legends, vibrant culture, and an unbroken cycle of fairs and festivals that weave through the year like a colorful tapestry. These celebrations are not mere events but a way of life—expressing joy, sorrow, hope, and resilience. They mark the changing seasons, infusing meaning into everyday existence while strengthening the bonds of community.

Among these festivals, Rama Navami stands out, heralding the arrival of spring and celebrating the birth of Lord Rama. Observed on the ninth day of the bright lunar fortnight (Shukla Paksha) in the month of Chaitra (April), it is marked by grand fairs, devotional songs, and fervent worship.

According to ancient lore, King Dashrath of Ayodhya—a prosperous and benevolent ruler—was childless despite having three devoted queens. Distressed, he performed a sacred yagna (fire ritual) upon Lord Vishnu’s advice. Pleased by his devotion, the gods bestowed upon him a bowl of kheer (rice pudding). Another version narrates that the fire god Agni himself emerged from the yagna and presented the divine dessert.

Dashrath distributed the kheer among his queens: Kaushalya, Kaikeyi, and Sumitra. In time, Kaushalya gave birth to Rama, Kaikeyi to Bharat, and Sumitra to the twins Lakshman and Shatrughan. Thus, Rama, the divine prince and embodiment of virtue, was born.

On Rama Navami, devotees fast, chant Rama’s name, and recite sacred texts like Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas in the Tarai-Madhes region and Bhanubhakta’s Ramayan in Nepal’s hills and Kathmandu Valley. Temples dedicated to Rama resonate with hymns, and the faithful immerse themselves in prayer, seeking blessings and solace.

The life of Rama has been immortalized in countless versions across languages and cultures. Valmiki’s Ramayan, the original Sanskrit epic, chronicles his journey through seven kandas (episodes), from his childhood (Bal Kand) to his final years (Uttar Kand).

Inspired by Valmiki, poets like Bhanubhakta (Nepali), Tulsidas (Hindi), and Chanda Jha (Maithili) retold the epic in their own tongues, each adding unique literary brilliance. Beyond South Asia, Rama’s story thrives—Thailand’s Ramakien, Indonesia’s Kakawin Ramayana, and other adaptations testify to his enduring legacy.

Rama is revered not just as a god but as the perfect human—an obedient son, a devoted husband, and a just ruler. His birth anniversary, Rama Navami, transcends borders, uniting devotees in Nepal, India, and beyond.

It is said that hearing Rama’s tale purifies the soul, and chanting his name alleviates suffering. Thus, this festival is not merely a ritual but a reaffirmation of faith, virtue, and the timeless wisdom of the Ramayan.

Jurshital is an ancient folk festival celebrated across Madhes, akin to Holi, but with the joyous tradition of playing with mud instead of colors. This festival is observed annually before the advent of the New Year in the Bikram Sambat (BS) calendar. It is a social festival enjoyed by all, characterized by fun and merriment. Jurshital is neither entirely cultural nor religious; rather, it is a one-day festivity that brings people together in celebration.

The festival marks the beginning of the New Year in the spring season, a time when the weather is neither too hot nor too cold, creating a soothing and pleasant atmosphere. It is widely celebrated by Maithili, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, and Tharu-speaking communities in southern Nepal, as well as in certain regions of neighboring India. Jurshital usually falls on April 14th or 15th each year, heralding the arrival of the New Year in the Bikram era.

Jurshital embodies a deep connection between nature and humanity. In today’s fast-paced world, people often struggle to appreciate the beauty of nature. As the poet William Wordsworth once wrote:

“The world is too much with us; we have no time to stand and stare.”

This festival serves as a reminder to reconnect with nature. The very name ‘Jurshital’ reflects this essence: ‘Jur’ means connection, and ‘Shital’ means coolness. It symbolizes staying calm and composed, even if just for a day. Playing with fresh, pure mud is believed to have medicinal benefits, acting as a natural remedy for skin ailments and stress.

One of the unique traditions of the festival is the act of seniors pouring cold water on the heads of juniors, signifying blessings and a wish for a calm and peaceful mind. This ritual strengthens social and cultural bonds within the community. Additionally, plants, trees, and animals are also included in the celebrations, as people pour pure and cool water over them early in the morning to maintain the ecosystem.

Jurshital begins with a local ritual called ‘Satuaiyan’ on the first day of Baisakh. The second day, Baisakh 2nd, is marked by the practice of seniors pouring water on juniors’ heads as a gesture of love and well-being. A significant aspect of the festival is the consumption of ‘Satua’, a flour made from roasted gram, which keeps the body cool and is rich in nutrients such as iron and magnesium. This medicinal diet is high in protein and low in sodium, making it an ideal breakfast choice.

Another traditional practice during Jurshital is giving the kitchen a break for a day. People eat food prepared the previous day, which is believed to be cooling for the body and mind. Delicacies such as cold curd-based curry, rice, ‘badi’ (sun-dried lentil dumplings), mango chutney, drumstick (‘Sohijan’) curry, and vegetable fritters are enjoyed. This practice also symbolizes respect for fire, as no cooking is done on the first day of Baisakh.

A significant cultural aspect of Jurshital is the performance of the folk drama ‘Salhesh’, which is especially popular among the Dushadh community. Salhesh, a revered figure in Madheshi folklore, is worshipped as a domestic deity by the Dushadh people, though members of other castes also participate in the festivities. The worship of Salhesh takes place in open spaces, usually under a ‘pipal’ tree on the outskirts of villages. The ritual involves offerings of rice, incense sticks, and sandalwood, among other sacred items.

A priest, embodying Salhesh, performs a trance-like ritual, chanting mantras and engaging in dramatic acts such as walking on the edge of a sword, which devotees believe is a manifestation of divine possession. He then showers flowers and rice upon the audience as a blessing before returning to normalcy.

In the past, the Dushadh community was considered a lower caste in the hierarchical caste system of Madhesh. However, in the present era of democracy and equality, caste-based discrimination has diminished, and the Dushadhs are now regarded as equal members of society. They actively participate in social activities without any distinctions.

Fagu, also known as Holi or Faguwa, is one of the most joyous and vibrant festivals celebrated in the Tarai Madhes region of Nepal. This festival, often referred to as the “festival of flying colors,” is a celebration of romance, unity, and the playful splashing of red powder and vibrant hues. While Holi is celebrated across Nepal and India, the traditions and customs in Tarai Madhes hold a unique charm and significance.

The festivities begin with the erection of the Chir (a ceremonial totem pole) in Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This marks the official start of the celebrations. Revelers splash water and throw colored powders—yellow, blue, and red—on each other, creating a kaleidoscope of joy. Friends, relatives, and even unsuspecting passersby, including foreign visitors, are not spared from the colorful onslaught. The festival spans a week, but the most exuberant moments occur when people play with Abir (colored powders) and water mixed with vibrant dyes.

The Chir, a three-tiered structure, holds deep cultural and mythological significance. It is raised on the 8th day of the waxing moon near the Kumari Temple in Basantpur and remains standing until the final day of the festival. The Chir symbolizes the Kadam tree from Hindu mythology, where Lord Krishna is said to have hung the clothes of the Gopinis (milkmaids) while they bathed in the Yamuna River. According to legend, the Gopinis were startled by Krishna’s flute and, in their embarrassment, prayed to the sun god while submerged in water. The pieces of cloth on the Chir represent the garments of the Gopinis, adding a layer of spiritual meaning to the festivities.

The great poet of Mithila Vidyapati has described in one of his poems:

“Let us go and greet the Spring,

Where Ketaki and Kund bloom, laughing.

The moon shines clear, a silver glow,

While black bees hum, their whispers low.

The night is soft, a dim embrace,

Yet my beloved turns an angry face.

Kamadeva, the god of love, takes his stand,

Locked in battle, bow in hand.

Radha and Krishna, in playful delight,

Plan to escape to the forest at night.

Beneath the trees, where shadows play,

They’ll find their joy and steal away.”

In Tarai Madhes, Fagu is celebrated a day after the full moon night of the month of Falgun. On the full moon night, communities gather to burn heaps of garbage, symbolizing the cleansing of old energies. The following day, the air fills with the melodies of traditional Fagua folk songs as people roam their villages, exchanging colors, red powder, and small gifts like betel nuts, coconuts, cardamom, cloves, and raisins. The festival is a time for feasting, merriment, and strengthening social bonds.

Fagu is deeply intertwined with themes of love, fertility, and renewal. The full moon night is believed to enhance vitality and vigor, awakening romantic and amorous feelings among people of all ages. The festival is particularly significant for newly engaged and married couples, as it symbolizes the blossoming of love and passion. Non-vegetarian meals, including fish, meat, and eggs, are consumed to boost stamina, while vegetarian delicacies like sweets and fruits are also enjoyed. Home-brewed beer adds to the festive cheer.

The festival transcends social boundaries, bringing together people of all castes, genders, and backgrounds. It is a time to let go of past grievances and embrace love, affection, and unity. The throwing of red powder (kumkum or sindur) symbolizes equality and the breaking down of societal barriers.

Fagu also has deep mythological roots. It is associated with the divine love stories of Radha and Krishna, Rama and Sita, and Shiva and Parvati. The festival’s connection to fertility rites is evident in the playful and sometimes risqué folk songs and chants. According to Sanskrit scholars, the festival’s exuberant shouting and revelry may have origins in ancient fertility rituals, symbolizing the celebration of life and creation.

The festival also marks the arrival of spring, known as Basantotsav. As the poet P.B. Shelley famously wrote, "If winter comes, can spring be far behind?" Fagu embodies this spirit of renewal and hope. The lighting of bonfires during the festival symbolizes the triumph of good over evil and the ushering in of a new season.

One of the most enchanting aspects of Fagu is its music. The Holi or Fagua folk songs, steeped in mythological references, are melodious and deeply evocative. A popular folk song recounts the story of Lord Krishna’s flute, which charmed the world and connected the three realms:

"On the day Krishna played the flute,

The three worlds were connected.

What was the flute made of?

And how was it tied?

On the day Krishna charmed the world,

With bones and flesh, the flute was made,

With love, it was tied."

Fagu is not just a festival; it is a celebration of life, love, and cultural heritage. It is a time when the people of Tarai Madhes come together to rejoice, forgive, and renew their bonds. The festival’s vibrant colors, melodious songs, and rich traditions make it a truly unforgettable experience, shared not only by the people of Nepal but also by their neighbors in India, reflecting a shared cultural legacy.