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In the vibrant Kathmandu Valley of the 1970s to 1990s, a silent, eco-friendly wonder cruised the streets, linking neighborhoods and simplifying daily travel for thousands. The electric trolley bus, a gift from the People’s Republic of China, was more than just a mode of transport—it was a symbol of modernity, environmental consciousness, and efficient public mobility. Operating on a 13-km route from Tripureswor in Kathmandu to Suryabinayak in Bhaktapur, these trolley buses offered a pollution-free alternative in a rapidly urbanizing valley. However, by the early 2000s, the system had faded into obscurity, a victim of mismanagement, political instability, and neglect. Today, as Kathmandu grapples with crippling traffic congestion and hazardous air pollution, the revival of the trolley bus system—along the Ring Road and the original Tripureswor-Suryabinayak route—presents a compelling solution to modern urban challenges.

The golden era of trolley bus

The trolley bus system was inaugurated on 28 Dec 1975, with an investment of Rs 40m from China. Twenty-two trolley buses began operations, covering the 13-km stretch between Tripureswor and Suryabinayak, passing through key areas like Koteshwor, Thimi, and Bhaktapur. The system was a visionary project, initiated during King Mahendra’s reign and realized under King Birendra, leveraging Nepal’s abundant hydroelectric potential to power clean public transport.

For residents of the Kathmandu Valley, the trolley bus was a lifeline. It facilitated seamless travel for commuters from Bhaktapur, Thimi, and surrounding areas to the capital, offering a comfortable, reliable, and affordable ride. Unlike diesel-powered buses, the electric trolley buses produced no tailpipe emissions, contributing to cleaner air in a valley already showing signs of urban strain. By the 1980s, the system was absorbing up to 80 percent of passenger journeys between Kathmandu and Bhaktapur, carrying as many as 10,000 passengers daily. Economically, the buses were a boon, requiring no fuel and minimal maintenance compared to fossil-fuel vehicles. Plans were even drawn to extend the route to encircle the Ring Road and reach Kalanki, a vision that promised to transform valley-wide mobility.

However, the system’s golden era was short-lived. By the late 1980s, political unrest and management inefficiencies began to erode its success. Overhead wires and pylons were damaged, resources were misused, and maintenance was neglected. By 1989, the once-profitable system started incurring losses, and private bus operators, rumored to have sabotaged the service, gained ground. The Nepal Trolley Bus Service, a branch of the Nepal Transportation Corporation (NTC), struggled under bureaucratic overstaffing and cronyism. Operations were suspended in 2001, briefly revived in 2003 on a truncated 5-km route from Tripureswor to Koteshwor, and permanently shuttered in November 2008. Today, the rusting hulks of the trolley buses at the Baneswor terminal stand as a poignant reminder of a lost opportunity.

Kathmandu’s modern mobility crisis

Fast-forward to 2025, and the Kathmandu Valley is choking under the weight of its own growth. With a population of nearly 4m and 1.75m registered vehicles, the valley faces unprecedented traffic congestion, air pollution, and an unreliable public transport system. Motorbikes dominate, making up 79 percent of the vehicle fleet, while microbuses and minibuses—low-occupancy, poorly maintained, and often overcrowded—constitute 94 percent of public transport vehicles. These diesel-powered vehicles emit significant particulate matter, contributing to Kathmandu’s ranking as one of the world’s most polluted cities. An estimated 9,943 Nepalis die prematurely each year due to outdoor air pollution, with the valley bearing a disproportionate burden.

The Ring Road, an eight-lane artery encircling Kathmandu and Patan, was designed to alleviate central congestion but is now overwhelmed by traffic. Microbuses, notorious for erratic driving and frequent stops, exacerbate delays and pollution. Despite road expansions, the lack of an efficient mass transit system has driven reliance on private vehicles, with motorbike and car ownership soaring. Public transport serves only 28 percent of the valley’s population, and commuters face long waits, cramped conditions, and unreliable schedules. The economic toll is staggering, with congestion causing losses in productivity, increased fuel imports, and public health costs.

The case for revival

Reviving the trolley bus system offers a sustainable, cost-effective solution to Kathmandu’s mobility and environmental woes. Trolley buses, powered by overhead electric wires, have distinct advantages over battery-operated electric buses, which dominate current discussions on green transport. They require no expensive batteries, reducing upfront costs and eliminating the need for frequent battery replacements or imports. Their continuous power supply ensures uninterrupted operation, unlike battery buses that need recharging. Nepal’s surplus hydroelectric capacity, especially during the monsoon season, could power a revived trolley bus network, reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels and improving the balance of trade.

Two potential routes stand out for revival: the original 13-km Tripureswor-Suryabinayak corridor and a new 27-km loop along the Ring Road. The Tripureswor-Suryabinayak route, serving densely populated areas like Bhaktapur and Thimi, could recapture its former glory as a high-demand commuter lifeline. A Ring Road trolley bus system would connect key nodes across Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur, offering an alternative to microbuses and private vehicles. Both routes could integrate with smaller electric vans or Safa Tempos for last-mile connectivity, creating a cohesive public transport network.

A 2006 revival attempt by the Kathmandu Electric Vehicle Alliance projected annual profits of one crore Nepali Rupees within a year, demonstrating economic viability. Modern trolley buses, equipped with e-ticketing, GPS tracking, and improved comfort, could attract riders accustomed to private vehicles. Studies show 73 percent of Kathmandu commuters support a shift to public transport, particularly if it’s reliable and eco-friendly. Prioritizing punctuality, comfort, and real-time information—key passenger demands—could ensure high ridership.

Challenges and solutions

Reviving the trolley bus system is not without hurdles. The 2006 effort failed due to deteriorating infrastructure and lack of maintenance, underscoring the need for robust management. Political will is critical, as past failures were tied to bureaucracy and cronyism. The valley’s 18 municipalities must collaborate, potentially through a dedicated transport authority, to coordinate routes, subsidies, and infrastructure. Subsidies will be essential, as public transport often operates at a loss to ensure accessibility, but the economic and environmental benefits justify the investment.

Infrastructure costs, including overhead wires and substations, pose another challenge. However, trolley buses are cheaper to deploy in smaller cities like Kathmandu compared to sprawling metropolises. Partnerships with international donors, such as the Asian Development Bank, which funded low-emission buses in 2018, could offset costs. Public-private partnerships, as seen in the ADB’s Kathmandu Sustainable Urban Transport Project, could ensure sustainability. Learning from past mistakes, rigorous maintenance schedules and anti-corruption measures are non-negotiable.

Competition from microbuses, backed by powerful private operators, could resist the trolley bus revival. A phased approach, starting with a pilot route, could build public support and demonstrate viability. Regulatory reforms, such as prioritizing trolley buses in dedicated lanes or banning diesel microbuses on key routes, could level the playing field.

A vision for the future

The trolley bus system’s revival could transform Kathmandu into a model of sustainable urban mobility. By reducing reliance on microbuses, it would cut particulate emissions, easing the valley’s air pollution crisis. Dedicated trolley bus lanes could streamline traffic flow, reducing congestion on the Ring Road and Tripureswor-Suryabinayak corridor. Economically, lower fuel imports and increased productivity would bolster Nepal’s economy. Socially, an accessible, dignified public transport system would improve quality of life, particularly for low-income commuters.

Kathmandu’s trolley buses once represented a bold leap into the future. Today, they offer a chance to reclaim that vision, blending nostalgia with necessity. With Nepal’s hydroelectric potential, public demand for green transport, and lessons from past failures, the time is ripe for revival. The rusting relics at Baneswor need not be the end of the story—they could be the prologue to a cleaner, less congested Kathmandu Valley.

Nepal, a landlocked nation characterized by its rugged mountainous terrain, faces significant challenges in maintaining reliable transportation networks, particularly during the monsoon season. The annual monsoon, typically spanning June to September, brings torrential rainfall, landslides, and flooding, which severely disrupt road connectivity across the country. Major highways, such as the Tribhuvan, Prithvi, and Araniko, frequently become impassable, isolating communities and disrupting the supply of essential goods. The Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway, a 42-km cargo transport system operational from 1964 to 1994, offers a proven solution to these challenges. Reviving this ropeway is imperative to ensure resilient, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable transportation in Nepal, especially during the monsoon season.

Monsoon disruptions and highway vulnerabilities

Nepal’s highways are critical arteries for trade, tourism, and daily commuting, yet they are highly vulnerable to monsoon-related disasters. In Sept 2024, torrential rainfall—the heaviest since 1970—caused widespread flooding and landslides, blocking 37 highways and damaging 25 bridges across the country. The Bagmati River in Kathmandu rose two meters above its safe level, flooding the capital and disrupting key road networks. The Narayanghat-Mugling section of the Prithvi Highway, a vital link between Kathmandu and the Terai region, is frequently obstructed by landslides during the monsoon, delaying commerce and impacting the economy. Similarly, the Araniko Highway, connecting Nepal to China, and the Pasang Lhamu Highway have faced closures due to floods and landslides, exacerbating trade disruptions.  These disruptions have significant economic and social consequences. In 2024, floods displaced thousands, destroyed infrastructure, and caused over 224 deaths, with 37 in Kathmandu alone.

Historical significance of Hetauda-Kathmandu ropeway

The Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway, originally built in 1922 by Chandra Shumsher Rana as a 22-km cargo system from Dhorsing to Kathmandu, was extended to 42 km in 1964 with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). During its peak, it operated for 10 hours daily, transporting 220 tonnes of goods—equivalent to 24 truckloads—at half the cost of road transport. The ropeway proved its utility during crises, such as the 1993 floods and the 1988-89 Indian blockade, when highways were impassable. However, institutional mismanagement, underutilization, and a policy shift prioritizing roads led to its closure in 1994. Today, its rusting towers stand as a reminder of a missed opportunity to leverage Nepal’s topography for sustainable transport.

Why revive Hetauda-Kathmandu ropeway?

Reviving the Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway offers multiple benefits, particularly in addressing monsoon-related transportation challenges.

• Resilience against monsoon disruptions

Unlike highways, ropeways are minimally affected by floods and landslides. Requiring only towers and stations, they occupy little ground space and avoid the need for extensive road construction in landslide-prone areas. The 1993 floods demonstrated the ropeway’s ability to maintain supply chains when highways failed. Reviving the ropeway would ensure year-round connectivity, especially during the monsoon, safeguarding the supply of essential goods to Kathmandu.

• Cost-effectiveness

Studies indicate that building ropeways is six times cheaper than constructing roads in Nepal’s hilly terrain. The Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway cost half as much as the Tribhuvan Highway to build, and its operational costs were significantly lower, with goods transported at Rs 346.80 per ton compared to Rs 480 by trucks. Additionally, gravity goods ropeways (GGRs), which use the terrain’s natural undulation, cost approximately Rs 2 million per kilometer to build and can reduce transportation costs by 70 percent, as shown by Practical Action Nepal’s projects.

• Environmental sustainability

Nepal’s road-building boom has caused significant environmental damage, including deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat loss. Unplanned road construction exacerbates landslides, as seen in the Narayanghat-Mugling section, where gully erosion and unengineered slopes have triggered disasters. Ropeways, by contrast, have a minimal environmental footprint, requiring less land alteration and preserving fragile ecosystems. With Nepal’s growing hydropower capacity, electrically operated ropeways align with the country’s clean energy goals, reducing reliance on fossil fuel-based transport.

• Economic and social benefits

The ropeway can boost rural economies by connecting remote settlements to markets. Practical Action Nepal’s gravity ropeways have doubled cash crop production within two years and saved over 100 person-days of travel time per household annually. Reviving the Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway could similarly enhance trade from the Terai to Kathmandu, particularly for goods from the Birgunj dry port to the Chobhar dry port. This would reduce economic losses from highway disruptions during festivals like Dashain and Tihar, when demand for goods peaks.

• Alignment with modern infrastructure needs

The Investment Board Nepal (IBN) has been studying the revival of the Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway since 2017 to transport goods from Birgunj to Chobhar. With the Chobhar inland container depot (ICD) under construction as part of the Nepal-India Regional Trade and Transport Project, the ropeway could serve as a vital link, keeping cargo vehicles out of Kathmandu and reducing urban congestion. A modernized ropeway could also integrate with Nepal’s growing tourism sector, complementing cable car projects like those in Chandragiri and Manakamana.

Challenges and solutions

Reviving the Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway involves several challenges. The high initial investment, need for technical upgrades, and bureaucratic delays pose significant obstacles. The original infrastructure, unused for over two decades, is irreparable, requiring entirely new construction. To address these issues, public-private partnerships (PPPs) can be utilized, drawing on private sector expertise as demonstrated by the successful Manakamana Cable Car project. The Ninth Five-Year Plan’s emphasis on private sector involvement in ropeways provides a replicable model. Additionally, international support from organizations like the World Bank, which funds the Chobhar Inland Container Depot, or technical assistance from countries like Switzerland, renowned for ropeway expertise, can help overcome financial and technical barriers. Furthermore, conducting comprehensive geological and environmental impact assessments, as advised for ropeways in the fragile Himalayan ecosystem, will ensure sustainable development and reduce risks, such as those observed during the 1999 monsoon flooding caused by a poorly planned ropeway.

Policy recommendations

To revive the Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway, the government should implement several policy measures. First, transportation policy should prioritize ropeways over road-centric approaches, as the World Bank’s 1976 Nepal Country Report noted the high cost of road construction in mountainous terrain. Second, the Investment Board Nepal (IBN) should accelerate technical feasibility studies to evaluate the ropeway’s suitability for heavy cargo transport, ensuring integration with the Chobhar Inland Container Depot (ICD) project. Third, private sector participation should be encouraged through tax incentives and streamlined approval processes to support ropeway development. Fourth, Nepal’s hydropower capacity should be leveraged to power ropeways, lowering operational costs and environmental impact. Finally, public awareness campaigns should highlight the ropeway’s resilience, cost-effectiveness, and environmental benefits to promote its adoption.

Conclusion

The Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway, once a lifeline for Nepal’s capital, holds immense potential to address the country’s transportation challenges during the monsoon season. Its revival would ensure resilient supply chains, reduce economic losses, and minimize environmental damage compared to road-based transport. By learning from past successes, such as the ropeway’s role in the 1993 floods, and addressing modern infrastructure needs, Nepal can build a sustainable transport system that complements its rugged topography. With coordinated efforts from the government, private sector, and international partners, the revival of the Hetauda-Kathmandu Ropeway can pave the way for a more connected and resilient Nepal.

Nepali’s beautiful geographical landscape nestled in the lap of the Himalayas shows a stunning economic contrast. The capital Kathmandu is rapidly becoming busy, overcrowded and suffering from increasing urbanization, while the hills and mountains that bear Nepal’s identity are becoming deserted. Villages are being emptied due to migration, modernization and economic pressure. The widening gap between the hustle and bustle of Kathmandu and the solitude of Nepal’s rural hills is also increasing social, economic and environmental pressures. Increasing urbanization and population pressure have threatened the ancient heritage of the Kathmandu valley.

An overwhelmed heart

A quiet valley adorned with temples, monasteries and traditional Newari architecture until half a century ago has now become a symbol of urban congestion. According to the 2021 census, the total population of the valley is 2,996,341. This includes the districts of Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur. However, including the population coming from outside, the current population of the valley is estimated to be around 4m. The valley is facing the challenges of rapid urbanization. The 2015 earthquake devastated parts of the valley. But reconstruction efforts have drawn more people to the capital in search of opportunities. Today, Kathmandu is a maze of congested streets, where honking horns, dust and pollution are everywhere.

The city’s infrastructure, built for a small population, is now under strain. Roads are constantly congested. Commuters spend hours in traffic. The sacred Bagmati has become a polluted waterway filled with garbage. Migrants from the Tarai and hills have created sprawling slums and houses on the city’s fringes. According to a 2021 World Bank report, the population of the valley is growing at a rate of four percent, much higher than the country’s overall population growth rate of 0.9.

This crowding has led to cultural and environmental impacts. Kathmandu’s UNESCO World Heritage sites, such as the Boudhanath Stupa and the Pashupatinath Temple, are surrounded by sprawl. This unplanned urbanization has reduced the sanctity and beauty of heritage sites. Air pollution in the city exceeds the World Health Organization’s standards, and PM2.5 levels pose a serious health risk. The pristine air of the valley, once adorned with mountain views, is now shrouded in smog.

The influx of people has also put pressure on resources. Water scarcity is a daily problem. Many residents rely on private tankers or polluted groundwater. The waste management system is causing garbage to pile up in streets and rivers. Kathmandu’s urban crisis, with growth outpacing plans, is an example of the challenges of rapid urbanization in developing countries.

Rural migration

While Kathmandu is overburdened, Nepal’s rural hills tell a different story of abandonment and decline. The country’s mountainous and hilly regions, home to sloping fields, traditional stone villages and vibrant ethnic communities, are being emptied. According to the Nepal Census 2021, the rural population has declined significantly in the last two decades. Many hill districts have lost up to 20 percent of their population. This migration is driven by economic need, lack of infrastructure and the lure of urban life. Agriculture, which is the backbone of rural Nepal, is unsustainable for many. Hill farmers practice subsistence farming on small, fragmented fields, which are becoming less productive due to soil erosion, erratic rainfall and labor shortages. Climate change has exacerbated these challenges. Irregular monsoons and rising temperatures have affected crop yields. Young people find opportunities in Kathmandu or abroad more attractive than working hard for meager returns on ancestral lands.

Migration is a major cause of rural decline. Young men and women are leaving their villages for Kathmandu or the Gulf countries, Malaysia and South Korea. According to the International Organization for Migration, remittances from migrant workers contribute about 30 percent of Nepal’s gross domestic product. But this economic support comes at a high cost. Only the elderly and children remain in the villages. Rural schools are closing due to a decline in student numbers. As the younger generation leaves the villages, traditional knowledge systems such as local farming practices are disappearing.

The depopulation of the hills has also had environmental impacts. Abandoned paddy fields are turning into bushes and are being taken over by invasive plant species. This is damaging the local ecosystem. Paddy fields managed for centuries are collapsing due to lack of regular maintenance, increasing the risk of landslides and soil erosion. Forests managed by community forestry programs are under pressure from illegal logging and neglect.

The push and pull

The contrast between the hustle and bustle of Kathmandu and the deserted hills is a manifestation of Nepal’s uneven development. The concentration of resources, opportunities and infrastructure in the capital creates a powerful attraction, drawing people from all over the country. Kathmandu is home to Nepal’s best hospitals, schools, universities and political and economic institutions. For rural families, sending their children to the capital or abroad is an opportunity for social advancement, even if they have to endure the chaos of the city or the uncertainty of migration.

Neglect of rural areas pushes people away from the villages. In remote hill districts, basic services such as health, education and electricity are often inadequate or absent. Roads here often become blocked during the monsoon, cutting off communities from markets and opportunities. Government policies have prioritized urban development. There has been little investment in rural infrastructure or agricultural innovation. As a result, the hills are trapped in a vicious cycle of decline. Population decline leads to further neglect, and this neglect drives further migration.

A balancing act

A holistic approach that balances urban and rural development is needed to address the twin crises of Kathmandu’s congestion and the desolate hills. Kathmandu needs a sustainable urban plan. This includes investing in public transport to reduce traffic, improving waste management and enforcing strict building codes to protect cultural heritage and green spaces. Community campaigns and government-backed projects to clean and restore its rivers, including the Bagmati, should be expanded.

Decentralization is equally important. Pressure on Kathmandu can be reduced by improving infrastructure and services in metropolises such as Pokhara, Biratnagar and Bharatpur. Encouraging businesses to operate outside the capital helps distribute economic growth more evenly across the country.

The rural economy in the hills should be prioritized to make it job-oriented and productive. This could include modernizing agriculture through better seeds, irrigation and training in sustainable practices. Encouraging tourism and community-based tourism that utilizes the natural beauty and cultural richness of the hills can provide alternative livelihoods. Programs such as providing vocational training and entrepreneurship grants to young people involved in rural development can encourage them to stay in or return to the villages.

Climate resilience should also be prioritized. Climate-smart agricultural technologies and disaster preparedness measures can mitigate the impacts of environmental change. Nepal can ensure sustainable management of natural resources by modernizing community forestry programs that have been successful in the past.

There is a need to instill a sense of pride in rural life. Celebrating the cultural heritage of hill communities through festivals, education and media can help dispel the perception that urban life is superior. By valuing both the urban core and the rural heartland, Nepal can build a more balanced and sustainable future.

The story of Kathmandu’s crowds and its desolate hills highlights the challenges of a nation in transition. Kathmandu’s urban chaos presents the pressures of rapid modernization, while the emptying hills indicate the erosion of Nepal’s connection to its rural soul. Bridging this gap requires bold policies that address the root causes of migration, invest in sustainable development and respect the rich cultural and natural heritage of the Himalayan republic. Only by nurturing both its bustling capital and its tranquil hills can Nepal ensure a vibrant, equitable and authentically Himalayan future.

The social contract is a profound idea rooted in the busy marketplace of human society centuries ago. Forged in the fiery debates of the Enlightenment, this philosophical foundation holds that individuals trade under the protection of the state. Visionaries such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau articulated this contract theory as an explanation for why people prefer to live under rules rather than without them.

In today’s interconnected world, this concept is at work in the global trade landscape. In these networks, individuals as well as nations agree on rules for mutual prosperity. 

Against this backdrop, the arrival of President Donald Trump and his trade policies have stirred up a storm in this global landscape. In 2017, Trump began imposing tariffs on imported goods, targeting countries like China, Canada and Mexico to protect American workers and industries. 

He further expanded these measures after taking office for a second term in 2025, declaring a national emergency under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) to address a trade deficit of over $1.2trn in 2024. He imposed 10 percent tariffs on all countries, including rates as high as 145 percent on China, effective from April 9, targeting countries with the largest US trade deficits.

Retaliatory tariffs from countries such as China and the European Union could harm American exporters, such as farmers, potentially reducing job gains. If the economic harm outweighs the benefits, the government may be failing in its duty to promote the welfare of citizens.

Globally, Trump’s tariffs test the fragile threads of the international social contract. Like Locke’s conditional agreement, trade agreements are mutual. By acting unilaterally, Trump’s policies risk violating this contract. This could lead to retaliation and market turmoil. Japan’s prime minister called it a ‘national crisis’, and JP Morgan raised the risk of a global recession to 60 percent.

Proponents argue that the global trading system was already broken, with countries like China engaging in unfair practices. From a Hobbesian perspective, Trump’s tariffs assert US sovereignty to protect its citizens, risking a flawed global contract. Yet they also risk destabilizing the cooperative framework that has underpinned post-World War II prosperity.

A philosophical lens

In the swirling currents of global trade, where nations vie for advantage, the ideas of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau cast distinct lights on the unfolding drama of President Trump’s tariffs. Each philosopher, with his unique vision of the social contract, offers a way to understand the motives, actions, and ripples of this modern trade saga.

Imagine a world where countries act like wary travelers in a lawless land, each guarding their own treasures. For Hobbes, this is the state of nature—a realm of raw competition where chaos looms without a strong hand to guide it. In his 1651 work Leviathan, he saw nations, much like individuals, needing a powerful sovereign to impose order. Trump’s tariffs, launched in 2017 and intensified in 2025, seem to fit this mold: bold moves by the United States to assert control, protect its industries, and carve out security in a turbulent trade landscape. Yet, Hobbes dreamed of an unchallenged ruler whose word was law. The reality of global trade tells a different story. As nations like China and the EU fire back with their own tariffs, markets tremble and Japan’s Prime Minister calls it a “national crisis”. This resistance reveals a world that bows to no single power, challenging Hobbes’ vision of a tidy, obedient order.

Locke steps into the tale with a gentler view, one rooted in rights and reason. Writing in 1690, he saw people coming together to protect their natural rights to life, liberty and property, forming a government only with their consent. Locke might nod at Trump’s aim to shield American workers and businesses, seeing it as a government’s duty to safeguard its people’s economic freedom. But he’d pause at the way these tariffs were imposed—unilaterally, without the nod of global partners. For Locke, legitimacy hinges on agreement, and actions that stray from the public good risk breaking the contract. When tariffs drive up prices, potentially hiking the cost of an iPhone by 30 percent or adding $1,280 to household expenses in 2025, Locke might warn that the government is failing its own citizens, betraying the very trust it was meant to uphold.

Then there’s Rousseau, who in 1762 wove a vision of the “general will”—a collective spirit where people unite for the common good. He’d peer closely at Trump’s tariffs, asking: do they truly reflect the heart of the American people or do they serve a narrower agenda? Protecting jobs in steel towns might seem to honor the general will, rallying communities hit hard by global trade. But Rousseau’s gaze would stretch further, to the global stage. By favoring American interests over shared prosperity, these tariffs spark retaliatory volleys that could shrink the US GDP by 0.8 percent or cost 740,000 jobs if unchecked. Rousseau might argue that such policies fracture the unspoken pact among nations, sowing mutual harm where cooperation could have flourished.

Together, these philosophers weave a rich tapestry of questions about Trump’s tariff war. Hobbes sees a bold bid for order in a chaotic world, yet stumbles against global defiance. Locke champions the protection of rights but demands consent and care for the public good. Rousseau seeks a collective will that binds both nation and world, wary of actions that pit one against the other. Their voices echo through the clatter of trade disputes, reminding us of the delicate dance between national pride and global trust, between safeguarding one’s own and honoring the shared bonds that keep the world turning.

The heart of the matter

Trump’s tariff war lays bare a core tension: can a nation honor its domestic social contract while upholding its global commitments? Domestically, tariffs address real concerns about job losses and economic decline, but their costs—higher prices and potential job losses from retaliation—raise doubts about their alignment with the common good. Globally, unilateral actions challenge the mutual consent that underpins trade agreements, risking a breakdown in the global social contract. 

The tariffs reflect a broader distrust in globalization, fueled by perceived inequities in trade. Yet, the path forward is fraught. As nations grapple with rising costs and market instability, the principles of social contract theory remind us that legitimate governance, whether at home or abroad, requires mutual agreement and a commitment to shared prosperity.

Nepal’s first modern highway, Tribhuvan Rajpath (named after King Tribhuvan), is not just a road but also a historical heritage. Famous by the name ‘Bairod Ko Bato,’ this route was the first motorable road connecting Kathmandu with the southern Tarai. Before the construction of this road, the only means of transport in Nepal were foot travel, horse-drawn carts and caravans of pack animals. The development of this Rajpath (Royal Path, later renamed Lokmarg et al to reflect political changes) had a profound impact on Nepal’s economy, trade and the lives of people.

Construction and historical events

Before the 1950s, the Kathmandu Valley was completely isolated from the outside world. Nepal had no paved roads, making the transportation of goods and travel quite difficult. After the end of the Rana rule in 1951, a plan was made to construct the first modern highway in Nepal with Indian assistance. With collaboration between Indian engineers and Nepali workers, the project initiated in 1953 got completed in 1956 and was named Tribhuwan Rajpath in honor of the then King.

When the artery was completed, in 1956, a jeep made its first trip from Birgunj to Kathmandu marking a historic moment when Nepal saw its first motor vehicle travel to the capital. That same year, the first bus service was also introduced in Nepal. People were so eager to see the bus that they would wait for hours to catch a glimpse of it. It was a marvel for everyone, from children to elders. Even today, this road is considered one of the toughest driving routes in Nepal. Sim Bhanjyang (2,483 meters) is the highest point of this route, where the cold climate and sharp turns pose a constant risk of vehicle overturning.

Stories of a hard road

In the past, traveling along the road used to be quite challenging for drivers, especially for those operating buses and trucks. When a new driver took a bus on this route for the first time, experienced drivers would perform a special ritual to ensure the new driver’s safety. One such tradition involved a brake test, where drivers would place stones on the road to check if the vehicle’s brakes were working properly before starting the journey. There were also times when buses or trucks would break down, and drivers and passengers would end up stranded overnight in the cold, surrounded by forests. With no help available in those remote areas, they had to spend the night waiting for assistance, facing the harsh conditions until they could continue their journey.

Center of trade and development

The completion of the road marked the beginning of organized trade in Nepal. Freight trucks started transporting goods from Birgunj to Kathmandu, making it easier to supply goods to shops. Hetaunda became one of Nepal’s major trading hubs, with trade in timber, tea and agricultural products growing. Daman is considered the most beautiful spot along this highway, offering a breathtaking view of the Himalayas, which made it a popular tourist destination. In the 1970s, as the Prithvi Highway and Mahendra Highway were constructed, people began to find easier and safer alternatives, and gradually the use of the old artery decreased. However, it remains a favorite route for bikers, adventure enthusiasts and lovers of history. Many tourists in Nepal still choose this route to experience the journey of the old times.

Full operation necessary

Transportation in Nepal is often disrupted due to monsoon rains, floods and landslides. The Banepa-Bardibas and Kathmandu-Mugling highways suffer heavy damage during the rainy season, disrupting traffic between the Kathmandu Valley and Madhes. Therefore, it is crucial to bring the good ole artery into full operation as an alternative and safe route.

A rugged terrain aside, this historic highway, which connects Kathmandu with Hetaunda and Birgunj, can play a vital role in improving Nepal’s transport safety if it is revived and upgraded. If the narrow bends of the route are widened, the road improved, and safety measures enforced, it can help ensure smooth traffic between Kathmandu and Madhes.

Revival

The history of the Rajpath reveals that it was not just a road, but Nepal’s first step toward modernization. As new highways continue to be developed in the country, it’s essential to modernize this historic route as well. One of the major challenges of this highway is its sharp bends, narrow roads and steep descents. In many areas, the road is so narrow that two vehicles can’t pass each other. To improve safety, it’s necessary to widen these dangerous bends, add safety railings, and place warning signs. Installing solar lights and reflector sign boards along the route would also make night travel much safer.

Over the years, the road has suffered significant damage due to rain and landslides, with potholes and broken surfaces being major contributors to vehicle accidents. To address this, regular maintenance and repairs should be planned, and efforts should be made to widen and pave the road so that even heavy vehicles can travel more easily.

There was a time when this road was the most important trade route in Nepal, connecting towns like Hetaunda, Palung and Daman, which thrived because of it. Today, to boost tourism and business, developing tourism hubs in places like Daman and Hetaunda would be a great idea. These towns could be promoted as part of a historic tourist route, with new markets and eateries created to support local businesses and attract visitors.

Though most people now use the Prithvi Highway and other modern routes, it’s important to recognize that the Rajpath is more than just a road; it is a significant part of Nepal’s heritage. The road should be preserved and developed as a heritage route. The government could declare it an adventure and heritage driving route to encourage more people to use it. Additionally, installing memorials and information boards at key historical sites along the route would help educate visitors and preserve its rich history for future generations.

Conclusion

To restore the lost identity of ‘Bairod Ko Bato,’ it is the right time to modernize and make it safe, reviving Nepal’s pride. This road is more than a road; it is a symbol of Nepal’s historical, cultural and economic transformation. This route not only led Nepal toward modernization but also awakened a new consciousness in Nepali society. Though journeys along ‘Bairod Ko Bato’ may have gone down today, it will always be remembered as Nepal’s first and most historic road. The transportation system in Nepal is frequently disrupted due to monsoon rains, floods and landslides. Particularly, the Banepa-Bardibas and Kathmandu-Mugling highways suffer significant damage during the rainy season, disrupting traffic between the Kathmandu Valley and Madhesh. In such a case, bringing the Rajpath into full operation as an alternative and safe route is extremely essential. This historic highway could prove to be significant for Nepal’s transport security if it is revived and improved. If the narrow bends are widened, the road is better, and safety measures are implemented, it will help ensure uninterrupted traffic between Kathmandu and Madhes. Its operation will not only boost trade, tourism and the local economy, but also act as a reliable alternative route during natural disasters. Hence, the modernization and reactivation of the historic artery is imperative for Nepal’s long-term development.

The principle of the separation of powers is a fundamental principle in the structure of modern democratic governance. It divides governmental powers into three branches: the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. The idea behind this separation is to prevent any single branch from accumulating too much power, ensuring a system of checks and balances that maintains democratic integrity and upholds the rule of law. In theory, each branch operates independently and acts as a counterbalance to the others, safeguarding individual freedoms and preventing authoritarian rule.

In the context of Nepal, the separation of powers has faced significant challenges in the post-republic era, particularly after the abolition of the monarchy in 2008. While the country formally transitioned into a republic, the violation of the principle of separation of powers has led to institutional weaknesses and the erosion of democratic values. This article explores the significance of the separation of powers in a democratic system, examines instances of its violation in Nepal’s post-republic era and highlights the consequences for the nation’s democratic health.

Importance of separation of powers

The separation of powers plays a crucial role in preventing the abuse of power by ensuring that no single entity has control over all aspects of governance. By dividing authority among different branches of government, each one serves as a check on the others, protecting citizens’ rights and preventing any one branch from becoming too dominant.

This system also promotes accountability. When power is shared, the legislature can scrutinize the actions of the executive, and the judiciary ensures that laws are applied fairly and impartially. This encourages transparency and makes those in power answerable to the public.

One of the most important aspects of the separation of powers is its role in safeguarding individual freedoms. The judiciary acts as a guardian of constitutional rights, ensuring that neither the executive nor the legislature can infringe upon fundamental freedoms. This protection helps to maintain a free and just society.

Moreover, the separation of powers contributes to the stability of governance. By distributing power among different branches, it helps counterbalance fluctuations or the concentration of power in any one area. This balance prevents instability and ensures that the government remains fair and resilient, even during times of political change.

Violation unabated

Nepal, after the declaration of the republic in 2008, adopted a democratic framework based on the principle of the separation of powers. However, the country’s post-monarchical era has seen numerous violations of this principle, which have had serious repercussions on the health of Nepalese democracy.

Executive overreach, legislative subjugation

One of the primary violations in Nepal’s recent history involves the dominance of the executive branch over the legislature. Since the reemergence of the parliamentary party system in Nepal in 1990, the House of Representatives has been dissolved six times. The fifth dissolution occurred on 20 Dec 2020, when Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli, acting on the recommendation of his cabinet, advised President Bidya Devi Bhandari to dissolve the House. President Bhandari accepted the recommendation the same day and announced that elections would be held in two phases: 30 April and 10 May 2021.

However, on 23 Feb 2021, the Supreme Court ruled that the dissolution of the House of Representatives was unconstitutional and ordered its reinstatement. The court issued a mandamus, directing that the House be convened within 13 days. As a result of the ruling, a session of the House was held on 7 March 2021.

In the sixth instance, on 22 May 2021, Prime Minister Oli again recommended to President Bhandari the dissolution of the House and the scheduling of mid-term elections for 12 Nov and 19 Nov 2021. The President accepted the recommendation, and the House of Representatives was dissolved once again, with the election dates announced accordingly.

Impeachment

In Feb 2021, Nepal’s ruling parties filed an impeachment motion against Chief Justice Cholendra Shumsher Rana, making him the second chief justice in the country’s history to face such a motion, following Sushila Karki in 2017. At the time, the Nepali Congress, the CPN (Maoist Center) and CPN (Unified Socialist) supported the motion against Rana, with Sher Bahadur Deuba as prime minister. The motion against Karki, filed in 2017, was led by Congress lawmaker Min Bahadur Bishwakarma, while the current motion against Rana was proposed by key figures from the ruling parties.

Karki’s impeachment led to her suspension and Gopal Parajuli temporarily taking over, with Rana later staying the motion. After Parajuli’s resignation, Rana became chief justice in 2019. Now, almost five years later, Rana faces his own impeachment motion, primarily due to accusations of corruption, misconduct and failure to perform his duties.

Consequences

When one branch of government begins encroaching on the others, it weakens the very foundation of democratic institutions. The independence and effectiveness of these institutions are compromised, leading to a loss of public trust in the democratic process. Over time, this erosion of faith increases the risk of authoritarianism taking root.

In Nepal, the manipulation of the separation of powers has contributed to political instability. Political parties often use state institutions to consolidate their own power, which has led to ongoing factionalism and conflict. This pattern is evident in the frequent changes in government leadership and the breakdown of the political system, leaving the country in a state of uncertainty.

For the people of Nepal, this constant political drama has led to growing disillusionment. The disregard for constitutional principles has made citizens skeptical of the political process, which in turn has resulted in lower voter participation. This disillusionment weakens the democratic process and erodes public support for democratic governance.

The lack of independence in the judiciary has further exacerbated this situation. When the legal system is not allowed to operate free from political influence, citizens lose confidence in it. Corruption, bias and the absence of fair justice create a culture of impunity, where political interests subvert the rule of law and undermine justice for all.

Conclusion

The separation of powers is essential in maintaining a healthy and functioning democracy. It ensures that power is not concentrated in the hands of one branch of government and that each branch can check the excesses of the others. Nepal’s post-republic era has been marked by several violations of this principle, leading to political instability, diminished trust in democratic institutions and public disillusionment with governance.

To restore the integrity of Nepal’s democracy, it is crucial to uphold the separation of powers and strengthen the independence of each branch of the state. Without this, the nation risks further undermining its democratic progress and succumbing to authoritarian tendencies. Only through respect for the separation of powers can Nepal ensure a more accountable, transparent and vibrant democracy for future generations.

Neo-fascism, a modern revival of authoritarian ideologies characterized by nationalism, anti-liberalism, and the erosion of democratic norms, is increasingly shaping global politics. Once associated with the authoritarian regimes of the early 20th century, such as Benito Mussolini’s Italy, neo-fascism is now emerging in various parts of the world, including Nepal. Despite its democratic framework, Nepal is witnessing the rise of neo-fascist elements within its political parties and leaders, threatening core democratic principles and minority rights.

While South Asia has had limited direct exposure to European fascism, authoritarianism, nationalism, and militarism have manifested regionally in troubling ways. Countries like India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal exhibit patterns resembling neo-fascism, challenging democratic norms and inclusivity. In Nepal, both old and emerging political parties and their leaders are adopting tactics and ideologies reminiscent of fascism, undermining the nation's democratic ethos.

Nepal, with its fragile democracy and history of political instability, provides fertile ground for the rise of neo-fascist tendencies. Political parties—both traditional and new—have displayed authoritarian traits, employed exclusive nationalist rhetoric, and sought to centralize power at the expense of democratic institutions and minority rights.

A remnant of the bygone royal regime, Rastriya Prajatantra Party (RPP) embodies a yearning for monarchical centralization. The RPP often calls for the restoration of a Hindu state, promoting exclusionary nationalism that marginalizes Nepal’s religious and cultural diversity. Its leaders glorify the monarchy as a symbol of unity and stability, reminiscent of fascist ideals of a strong, centralized authority. The party’s resistance to federalism and advocacy for a unitary state align with neo-fascist tendencies of eroding regional autonomy.

The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre), under the leadership of Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda), has also exhibited authoritarian characteristics. During the decade-long insurgency, the Maoists relied on militarization and the glorification of Prachanda’s leadership, fostering a cult of personality that echoes Mussolini’s tactics. Even in the post-insurgency period, the party’s hierarchical structure and intolerance for dissent within its ranks reveal authoritarian tendencies. The party's leaders have used populist rhetoric to consolidate power while sidelining opposition voices, undermining democratic discourse.

In recent years, concerns have grown over the influence of neo-fascism within Madhes-based political parties in Nepal. These parties, which represent the Madhesi community, have historically advocated for marginalized groups’ rights and greater autonomy. However, some factions are increasingly adopting ultra- regionalist, authoritarian ideologies, characterized by aggressive regionalism, ethnic superiority, and exclusionary politics. This shift threatens the inclusive federalism enshrined in Nepal's constitution, raising fears about undermining democratic values and political pluralism. As these parties navigate their identity and power, it is crucial for Nepal to ensure that democratic principles and federalism are upheld amidst rising nationalist pressures.

Emerging political figures like Rabi Lamichhane and his Rastriya Swatantra Party (RSP) have capitalized on populist and nationalist sentiments. Lamichhane’s rhetoric often targets foreign influence, invoking fears of national sovereignty being undermined. While this approach garners public support, it risks fostering xenophobia and scapegoating minorities, particularly the Madhesi and indigenous communities. This exclusive nationalism, combined with Lamichhane’s attempts to position himself as a strong leader, reflects neo-fascist tendencies.

Even mainstream parties like the Nepali Congress (NC) and the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) are not exempt from neo-fascist tendencies. Leaders like KP Sharma Oli of the UML have frequently used divisive nationalism to strengthen their hold on power. During his multiple terms as prime minister, Oli oversaw a growing centralization of authority, efforts to undermine parliamentary processes, and the sidelining of provincial governments. His frequent use of national security threats to justify his policies echoes neo-fascist tactics of consolidating power through fear and division.

Neo-fascism in Nepal often manifests in exclusive nationalist rhetoric that sidelines ethnic, linguistic, and religious minorities. Political parties frame federalism and decentralization as threats to national unity, undermining the representation and autonomy of Madhesi, Dalit, and indigenous communities. The opposition to inclusive policies fosters a narrow vision of national identity, eroding Nepal’s rich multicultural heritage.

The suppression of dissent is another hallmark of fascism evident in Nepal. Successive governments have restricted media freedom, targeted journalists and activists, and leveraged cyber laws to curb online expression. These actions echo tactics used by neo-fascist regimes globally to silence opposition and control public discourse. The increased surveillance of civil society groups and restrictions on peaceful protests further signal a drift toward authoritarianism.

Nepal’s political leaders frequently invoke national security concerns to justify expanding military and police powers. For example, the government’s decision to militarize border areas under the pretext of protecting sovereignty has been criticized as overreach. Similarly, the increased reliance on security forces to manage civil unrest fosters a climate of fear and normalizes authoritarian measures.

Social media has become a powerful tool for spreading nationalist rhetoric and neo-fascist ideologies in Nepal. The widespread use and abuse of platforms have fueled the rise of figures like Kathmandu Mayor Balendra Saha and RSP leader Lamichhane. Political leaders and parties leverage platforms such as Facebook and Twitter to amplify ultra-nationalist messages, frequently targeting minorities and critics. The swift spread of misinformation and polarizing content divides society, providing fertile ground for neo-fascist ideas to flourish.

The rise of neo-fascism in Nepal threatens its democratic framework, inclusivity, and civil liberties. Continued erosion of democratic institutions, suppression of dissent, and centralization of power could undermine Nepal’s progress toward becoming a stable, pluralistic society.

Moreover, Nepal’s geopolitical position between India and China makes rising nationalism particularly risky. Anti-foreign rhetoric could strain diplomatic relations, disrupt trade, and hinder regional cooperation.

As Bertrand Russell warned, fascism thrives in times of unrest, using propaganda and nationalism to scapegoat minorities and consolidate power. Nepal’s path forward requires vigilance, an informed citizenry, and a robust civil society. Political parties must commit to democratic norms, promote inclusivity, and resist the temptation to exploit nationalist sentiments for short-term gains.

Strengthening democratic institutions, ensuring media freedom, and fostering interethnic dialogue are critical to countering neo-fascist tendencies. Nepal must safeguard its democratic achievements and uphold the values of pluralism, equity, and justice for all its people.

The Emperor’s New Clothes, one of the most enduring and insightful fairy tales by Danish author Hans Christian Andersen, continues to resonate deeply with readers across generations. Originally published in 1837, the story is a sharp critique of vanity, deception, and the susceptibility of those in power to flattery and self-delusion. Despite its fairy-tale origins, its themes remain startlingly relevant in the context of contemporary political systems, especially in developing countries like Nepal.

This article draws a parallel between the allegorical tale of the emperor, who is deceived into believing he is wearing invisible clothes, and the current political climate in Nepal. The emperor’s blindness to reality, his vanity, and the fear of appearing foolish that paralyzes those around him mirror the behavior of many political leaders today. Much like the emperor’s advisers, who fail to speak the truth out of fear, Nepali citizens and officials often find themselves complicit in a system where hollow promises, corruption, and the illusion of progress prevail over tangible change. Through this comparison, this article explores how the lessons from Andersen’s story illuminate the challenges facing Nepal’s political landscape, offering a critique of both leadership and governance in the country.

Once upon a time, there was a foolish emperor who was very fond of fashion. He spent a lot of money on the finest clothes and always wanted to look more beautiful than others. The people of the city were often amazed by his elaborate attire.

One day, two clever swindlers arrived in the empire. They presented themselves as weavers of extraordinary fabrics and convinced the emperor that the clothes they made were not only beautiful but also had a unique quality. They told him that only wise and competent people could see these fabrics, while fools would see nothing at all.

Surprised by this idea, the emperor invited the swindlers to his palace. They presented themselves with grand gestures, and the emperor, eager to see these magical clothes, immediately hired them, giving them as much gold and silk as they requested to weave the garments.

However, the weavers were doing nothing but pretending to weave. Every day, the emperor sent his trusted advisers to check on the progress. Even though none of them saw any clothes being made, each of them, afraid of appearing foolish, reported to the emperor that the clothes were magnificent.

One day, the emperor himself went to see the weavers at work. He too saw them working on empty looms, but fearful of being thought of as a fool or incompetent, he praised the clothes, even though there was nothing to see.

Finally, the day of the grand parade arrived. The entire city gathered to see the emperor in his new clothes. The emperor, completely naked, proudly walked through the streets, confident that he looked magnificent. The people, too, afraid of being thought fools, began praising the invisible clothes.

But then a small child shouted, “The emperor is not wearing anything! The emperor is naked!” A hush fell over the crowd, and the emperor suddenly felt exposed. By then, the swindlers had long since disappeared with their sacks of gold.

In Nepal today, the emperor is no longer an individual; the country itself walks naked. The leaders, like the weavers, are weaving empty promises and walking away with sacks of gold, just like the Rajapaksas in Sri Lanka.

The story of The Emperor’s New Clothes resonates deeply in Nepal’s current political context, reflecting the widespread disillusionment and frustration many citizens feel toward their leaders. It serves as a powerful metaphor for the current situation, where many leaders, much like the swindlers in the tale, are focused only on their own personal gain and power.

In recent years, Nepal has faced significant political turmoil. Leaders often make grand promises about development, infrastructure, and social welfare. But these promises frequently remain unfulfilled, leaving citizens with unmet expectations. Many leaders are preoccupied with staying in power and engaging in corruption, while failing to address the problems of poverty, education, and healthcare. Like the emperor in the story, many of these leaders are disconnected from the reality of ordinary citizens. Political campaigns are often presented through catchy slogans and flashy rallies. These spectacles create an illusion of progress. However, beneath the surface, the daily struggles of the people continue: rising inflation, inadequate public services, and a lack of opportunities. Citizens, like the emperor’s advisers, hesitate to tell the truth, unsure of how to challenge the narrative being presented. Awareness is beginning to rise. Recent protests and waves of civic engagement reflect an increasing demand for reality and accountability. Citizens are no longer willing to accept the status quo. They are beginning to challenge the hypocrisy of their leaders. The innocent child in the story symbolizes this awareness, encouraging the public to see through the illusion and to challenge the ongoing deception.

Building a new society

This is a crucial moment for the citizens of Nepal to become actively involved in the political process. They must demand transparency from their leaders and advocate for policies that prioritize social welfare and real development, rather than hollow promises. Grassroots movements and civil society organizations are key to this struggle, as they can force leaders to be accountable. This will help cultivate a culture of civic engagement and participation. The final lesson is clear: true leadership is about service, integrity, and accountability. It calls for leaders who are ready to face the challenges of governance and put aside their personal ambitions for the well-being of the people. By adhering to core values, civil society can build an honest political environment that addresses the needs of the public. The story of The Emperor’s New Clothes serves as a cautionary tale of foolishness, but it also carries an important message for the citizens of Nepal. It underscores the importance of vigilance, participation, and the constant pursuit of truth. Citizens are waking up to the illusions spun by their leaders. They are raising their voices for a cleaner political character and demanding standards based on higher values. By rejecting deception and embracing reality, we can build a political system that is accountable to the people. A collective effort can ultimately lead Nepal toward a stronger, more responsive system that listens to the voice of the people.