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Sharda Sapkota, a resident of Gaidakot Municipality-11 in Nawalpur district, had planted bamboo and lilac trees on her private land. About two years ago, she cut the trees to prepare the land for farming. However, Nepali Army personnel deployed for the security of Chitwan National Park arrested her, accusing her of cutting trees illegally. Her house and land fall within the buffer zone area.

According to Govinda Subedi, ward chair of Gaidakot-11, many people living in the buffer zone had settled there even before the buffer zone was declared. “They live on private land, but their ownership rights are not fully recognized,” he said.

In another incident, Govinda Paudel of Gaidakot-11 was arrested while thatching the roof of his cowshed. Subedi said restrictions in the buffer zone have severely affected local livelihoods. “Bote and Majhi communities are not allowed to go fishing. People are not allowed to cut grass growing on their own land. 

They cannot dig for soil in their fields, and even for registering animal husbandry, they are forced to go to Kasara for approval,” he said. “So much so, marginalized communities living near the forest cannot even collect firewood washed away by rivers.”

Nepal has 13 national parks and seven conservation areas, including the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Sanctuary. The government introduced the buffer zone program in 1996 to increase community participation in conservation. “Buffer zones around parks and reserves are designed to maintain ecological integrity and ensure community participation in biodiversity conservation,” said conservation biologist Babu Ram Lamichhane.

Under the Buffer Zone Management Regulations, 1996, the government can declare areas surrounding national parks and wildlife reserves as buffer zones. Nepal has about 5,602 square kilometer in 13 buffer zone areas, where nearly 1.2 million people live.  

‘Remove buffer zones’

Although the concept of buffer zone was introduced to balance conservation and local livelihoods, residents in some areas have been demanding delisting of their respective areas as buffer zones over the past five years. 

Hemanta Acharya, chairman of the Bardiya National Park Buffer Zone Area Management Committee, said people are angry because restrictions have become as strict as inside national parks. “People’s daily needs have been increasingly restricted,” he said.

Residents of Gaidakot Municipality have submitted signatures to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, demanding that their area be removed from the list of butter zones. 

Deputy Mayor Shanti Koirala said opposition to the buffer zone has grown because people are being punished for felling trees they planted themselves, which they see as an obstacle to development.

Tara Kaji Mahato, mayor of Madi Municipality in Chitwan district, stated that local communities had hoped that the declaration of their area as a buffer zone would make lives easier for them, to little avail. “But the reality is quite far from the promises made during the buffer zone declaration,” she said, “Floods enter the villages and create serious problems, but we are not allowed to do anything to protect ourselves. The buffer zone has made our lives far more difficult.” 

Earlier, people’s protests were limited to areas around national parks. Now, the protests have formally reached Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal.

On Jan 14, people from Bardiya district, who are living in Kathmandu, staged a protest, demanding a solution to buffer zone-related problems. “Our demand is not to kill tigers, but the buffer zone has created many problems at the local level,” said Roshan Pandey, a resident of Bardiya. “We want to exercise our basic rights, but nobody listens to our problems.”

Affected communities have also submitted a memorandum to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, the Ministry of Forests and Environment, and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), demanding a concrete solution to the issue.

Conflict over natural resources

Another dispute has emerged between national parks and local governments over the use of natural resources in buffer zone areas. Tara Kaji Mahato said local governments are not allowed to extract river materials such as gravel and sand without permission from national parks.

“We should be allowed to use natural resources from rivers and streams in the buffer zone as per the Local Government Operation Act, 2017,” she said. “The Act gives local governments the authority to collect and sell stones, gravel, sand, soil, timber and other natural and mineral resources, and to collect export fees.”

However, Ganesh Raj Panta, warden of Chitwan National Park, said the park administration must follow the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 2029. “We have to follow the law,” he said. “Sometimes, without understanding the legal process, national parks are blamed for populism and unrealistic demands. Good governance should involve communities and all concerned authorities, not only national parks.”

The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 2029, prohibits the extraction of gravel and sand from rivers and streams flowing through buffer zones without permission. Such materials can be extracted only after approval from the park administration and the payment of prescribed fees.The Chitwan National Park Regulations, 2030, state that no one can dig, search for, or remove soil, stones, sand or other mineral materials within the park area without prior approval.

Consumers and stakeholders from buffer zone areas have demanded changes to existing laws, policies and regulations that contradict each other. A common agenda was endorsed during the “Shared Voice for Equality” program, Community Practices for Strengthening Equitable Governance in the Buffer Zones of Nepal’s Protected Areas-organized by RECOFTC Nepal in Sauraha, Chitwan.

The existing policy requires that 30–50 percent of national park revenue be allocated to buffer zone committees. However, they have not received this share since last year. As a result, consumers and stakeholders have demanded that the funds be provided in accordance with the law.

Bed Kumar Dhakal, deputy director general of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), said the department agrees that local governments should be given rights to use natural resources such as gravel and sand from rivers near settlements in buffer zones by amending existing laws and regulations.

“Since 1990, the buffer zone regulations have not been amended, which is regrettable,” he said. “It is time to revise the regulations. Issues related to settlements should be handled by local governments, while national parks focus on forest and conservation areas. Our main conflict is over resource use, but we are not saying these resources should be completely restricted.” 

Marginalized communities left out

Marginalized groups such as indigenous peoples, Dalit communities and other disadvantaged groups have a direct relationship with natural resources. They depend on forests to meet their daily needs, yet they remain excluded from the mainstream, especially from leadership positions in various consumer committees.

Because these communities are kept out of decision-making, real, ground-level problems often go unheard. Bikram Chaudhary, a member from Kohalpur, said that people who are directly dependent on natural resources have so far been unable to reach leadership positions. “Those who understand the forest best are not in decision-making roles,” he said.

The Chitwan Declaration has emphasized the need to ensure the participation of Dalit, women, Indigenous peoples, marginalized and affected communities in benefit-sharing mechanisms. It calls for amendments to existing policies and laws to guarantee their meaningful participation.

However, representation of women, Dalit, indigenous and marginalized communities in buffer zone consumer committees remains very weak. Consumers and stakeholders have demanded that participation be ensured as envisioned in the Forest Policy 2076.

Pradeep Budhathoky, deputy director of RECOFTC Nepal, said that meaningful participation of women, Dalit, indigenous, and marginalized communities strengthens biodiversity conservation. “When those most connected to natural resources are involved, conservation becomes more effective and sustainable,” he said.

RECOFTC Nepal has been implementing the Shared Voice for Equality program—Community Practices for Strengthening Equitable Governance in the Intermediary Areas of Nepal’s Protected Areas. The program aims to strengthen equitable governance by enabling indigenous peoples and local communities to actively and meaningfully participate in conservation management.

Bed Kumar Dhakal of DNPWC acknowledged that women, Dalit, Indigenous, and marginalized communities have not been adequately represented at committee levels.

“We agree that participation of target groups must be ensured,” Dhakal said. “We have drafted a new Act to better represent community forests, indigenous peoples living along park boundaries and communities such as the Bote and Majhi. The issue of resource distribution will also be addressed. We plan to hold consultations with stakeholders within the next two to four months.”

Govinda Prasad Subedi, ward chair of Gaidakot Municipality–11, said laws and regulations should be people-centred. “Our concern is how to provide relief to people,” he said. “But the state often focuses on making strict laws and controlling resources. This is where conflict begins.”

“Conservation cannot succeed without people’s participation,” Subedi added. “No matter how strict the rules are, people will continue to extract resources to meet basic needs. That is why participatory conservation is essential.”

Bhimsari Rokka, 36, from Thawang Rural Municipality-3 in Rolpa, once dreamed of getting a higher education. However, due to her family’s poor condition, she had to work as a shepherd from the age of six instead of going to school. When she was only six months old, her father passed away.

Even though Bhimsari worked as a shepherd, her family managed to send her brother to school. “I wanted my brother to get a good education and become a government officer,” she recalled. Unfortunately, her dream was shattered when Maoists forcefully recruited him as a guerrilla while he was in grade seven. After the peace process began in 2007, he went to a Gulf country in search of better opportunities, but sadly, he died when he fell from a building where he worked.

Thawang is known as the birthplace of Nepal’s Maoist armed struggle, which began in Rolpa in 1996. It was one of the main base areas of the Maoist movement, and people lost their lives during the war. According to Rishikesh Budha Magar, Chairperson of the Thawang Rural Municipality, about 100 people lost their lives during 10 years’s 10-year-long Maoist insurgency in Thawang.  

Bhimsari got married at a young age. Because of poverty, she could not study as a child and spent most of her life struggling with hardship. After marriage, her husband, Parbesh Rokka, taught her how to read and write. Today, Bhimsari is not only literate but also skilled in using technology. Together, she and her husband run a small business that has brought happiness to their lives. “When I joined a financial literacy class, my life completely changed. It was a turning point for me,” she said.

Through her financial literacy class, she learned how to save money, run an agricultural business, and use modern technology such as digital wallets, mobile banking, and various mobile apps.

Particle Action, in collaboration with local governments, launched the Empowering Women Farmers through digital finance, Nepal (Samunati Digital Finance Project) in the backward villages of Rukum, Rolpa, and Dang, targeting women to empower them and improve their quality of life in 2022. 

Today, many women in the remote villages of western Nepal—particularly in the Dang, Rukum, and Rolpa districts—have become familiar with mobile banking and digital technology. This growing use of technology has helped them manage their finances, expand their businesses, and ultimately improve their lives.

Cashless village

Until five years ago, people in the villages had little idea of the internet or of technology such as mobile banking and useful apps. Those living in cities were familiar with these tools and used them regularly. However, over the past five years, even remote villages in Nepal have become cashless communities. Today, if you travel there, you don’t need to carry cash—digital payment has made life much easier.

Ram Kumari Jhakri, from Thawang Rural Municipality-3, Putalikhani, operates a small store in her village. In the past, she had to travel about 130 kilometers—spending an entire day on a bus and carrying large amounts of cash—just to buy goods for her shop. Now, she no longer needs to travel. She simply makes a phone call, prepares a list of items, and sends money through a mobile app.

“I haven’t traveled to buy goods with cash for the past three years. Everything is done through calls and mobile banking,” she explained. “It has made my life easier and saved time. Before, when I carried cash, I was always afraid.”

She now pays her electricity bills, insurance, and other expenses through mobile apps such as eSewa and Khalti. Earlier, she had to travel to the district headquarters in Liwang—a two-day journey that cost her about Rs 7,000—just to pay a bill of Rs 30.

Ram Kumari also recalled how she once gave Rs 4,000 to someone to pay her electricity bill for a year, but he disappeared without doing so. In another incident, she paid insurance premiums amounting to NPR 265,000 over three years to a local insurance agent she trusted. Later, the insurance office in Liwang informed her that no payments had been made. “I regularly paid cash to the agent, and he was well known to me, so I believed him,” she said. “But he cheated me and many others in the village. When we complained and demanded a refund, he too disappeared.”

Now, Jhakri helps other villagers pay their electricity bills and insurance premiums using mobile wallets—especially those who are not yet familiar with technology.

Even parents in the village, whose children study in private boarding schools, now use mobile apps to pay monthly school fees. Dil Maya Dasaudi Magar, a mother of two sons studying in Class 5 and Nursery, said, “I never imagined this technology could help us so much. It has truly made our lives smarter—even in remote villages.”

Technology and professional agriculture

In the past, extreme unemployment and poverty in districts like Rukum and Rolpa were among the main reasons behind the start of the Maoist war in Nepal. Today, however, technology is helping transform agriculture into a professional and profitable occupation in these same areas, creating jobs and hope.

Bhimsari Rokka’s husband, Parbesh Rokka Magar, spent 19 years in Saudi Arabia as a laborer. After Bhimsari introduced him to financial literacy and modern agricultural techniques, he decided to return home and start a farming business and a small store.

According to Parbesh, he now earns about Rs 500,000 annually from selling potatoes, beans, and other off-season vegetables. “We check market prices using a geo-agriculture app,” he said. “If a vegetable is infected by pests or disease, we take a picture and upload it to the app, and it gives us advice on what to do next.”

Through financial literacy classes, many farmers like Parbesh have learned to use mobile apps to improve their farming practices and income. Parbesh and his wife also save NPR 11,000 per month in a local cooperative. “We couldn’t study, but we want to provide a good education for our children,” he said.

Many other farmers in village areas are benefiting from agriculture-related mobile apps. For example, Shobha Gautam, from Dangisharan-7, Shreegawau, Dang, once noticed her goat was sick and not growing well. She took a photo and uploaded it to an agriculture app, and after following the advice she received, the goat recovered. “After we learned to use mobile apps, we’ve received so many benefits—from weather information to pest control,” she said.

Some women have even become entrepreneurs using mobile technology. Maya KC, from Shantinagar-2, Dang, runs a small snack bar and sewing shop. She learns new recipes and fashion designs from YouTube, which has helped her improve her business and increase her income. 

With the arrival of wired internet in remote villages, people have been able to use technology more effectively in their daily lives. In the remote districts of Rukum and Rolpa, residents now have access to cable internet services.

Khima Nanda Dangi, the owner of Nepal Agro Electric and Network Company, said that he has expanded over 1,000 kilometers of internet cable across villages in Rukum and Rolpa. According to him, his company now serves more than 4,000 customers in these two districts. 

“In places where the mobile phone network is weak, the wired internet connection works very well,” Dangi explained. “People are now doing almost everything online. Before internet access, students in remote villages had to travel long distances for tuition classes, but now they can study from home. Similarly, people can deposit money in banks and cooperatives through mobile banking.” He added that many people who have internet connections at home now use digital wallets to deposit or transfer money directly from their phones.

Ownership of local government

In 2022, Practical Action launched the Empowering women farmers through digital finance, Nepal (Samunati Digital Finance Project), targeting women and small farmers in the rural areas of Rukum, Rolpa, and Dang. The project aimed to empower women with digital financial literacy, help them access banking services, and use mobile banking effectively. The project period will conclude this December.

During this time, more than 7000 women across eight municipalities in the three districts have gained awareness and skills in financial literacy. 

“Many of these women had never even heard of the internet, WiFi, or mobile banking before,” said Santosh Adhikari, Project Manager of the Samunati Digital Finance initiative. “Now, they are familiar with technology. In areas where internet service was not available, we helped connect them to it.”

Following the project’s success, local governments have decided to continue financial literacy programs in their respective areas.

Triveni Rural Municipality in the Rolpa district has allocated a budget to continue financial literacy initiatives for its residents. Karna Bahadur Batha, Chairperson of the Municipality, said that although they have completed the basic development of physical infrastructure, improving people’s livelihoods remains a priority. “We realized that people need to be financially strong—to know how to earn and save money. That’s an important part of development,” Batha said. “Taking this seriously, we will continue the literacy campaign in the coming days.”

Triveni Rural Municipality has allocated a budget of Rs 7m for this year to support the program.

Similarly, Dangisharan Rural Municipality has also planned to continue financial literacy programs among its residents. Sambhu Giri, the Municipality's Chairperson, emphasized that human development is essential alongside infrastructure development. “Programs like these are gifts from institutions, but society must evolve with time,” Giri said. “That’s why we focus on programs that help bring real social change.”