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Climate change or environmental degradation has been one of the most severe predicaments that the present world is helplessly facing. Various scholars use terms or phrases such as ‘an accruing challenge to both human and non-human community’, ‘recipe for multi-factorial disaster’ or ‘global vulnerability’ to encapsulate the extent of envisioned/experienced difficulty and hardship. As a discourse that forms part of key global discussions, it has humongous control over almost all intellectual forums, political plenaries, summits, academic plenums and research rigors/attempts.

Sagarmatha Sambad, one of the highly-touted events in our nation, also holds the same theme as the critically cardinal issue. Many countries go fairly vocal to unfold verbal solidarity on each of proposed collective initiatives to mitigate the climate-induced consequences. Despite deepening concerns, climate change warning has been a several-fold soft power political tool of supposed world-power nations to extend hegemony and impose their colonial attitude on others.

Concept of development that the power-nations have enforced is itself grossly anti-climactic. Development is falsified in construction of skyrocketing RCC buildings and expansions of roads unwisely to every nook and corner of the village. Road networks, multiplex commercial buildings and physical infrastructure built in a haphazard manner are understood and misjudged as key indicators of development, in an alarming avalanche of capitalism.

Our past development efforts were on pathways of climate resilience and bio-friendly living. All the materials used in construction of houses and buildings were decomposable and soil adjustable. Eco-centric perspective was systematized. The current parameters of development, which western nations purported, presented and utterly prescribed to the rest of the world, are responsible for climate catastrophe and an infinite ecocide. Western countries’ consistent immersion on theorizing development as roads, factories, buildings, cities, vehicles and infrastructure—mostly in grossly unmethodical and disorganized manner—at the expense of greenery is mainly responsible for the climate crisis of this day and age.     

Nepal is not a carbon-emitting nation. Much of emission originates from the same countries that tell other countries to control it. Countries with minimal emission footprints, often addressed as non-emitters, are suffering and grappling with the grim and grave danger as much as net-emitters.
Out of a total 37.55 gigatonnes of emission in 2023, Nepal has only 0.04 percent share. Nonetheless, proportionate and uniformed damage in all sectors are equally severe as in the emitting countries.
Those powerful nations (the big emitters) have almost and already achieved the expected level of development. Their levels of industrialization and urbanization are way above than that of many other nations. High-emitting countries have big factories, largest road networks, many industries, rapid and robust expansion of infrastructure and the biggest corporations. Those western and Euro-American nations have been trying every bit to bar other nations from achieving this feat. Most of the international convents and conventions, especially those that western power countries generate or promulgate, focus around disarmament, global war, confrontations and so on.

In fact, not any veto out of 279 practices in its history—from the maiden use on 16 Feb 1946 till the recent one on 24 April 2024—has been yet used or positioned for climate justice. All international communities and organizations have become mute bystanders and numb stamps when it comes to making global commitments on curbing climate change and walking the talk.

Why should Nepal be condemned and convicted for the crime it did not commit? The big emitters should admit their guilt rather than alarming the rest and pay due compensation to non-emitting nations like Nepal.

In a step towards operationalizing the Paris Agreement’s carbon market, a UN supervisory body has adopted key standards to guide how emission-reducing projects are measured and credited. These new rules—established under the Paris Agreement Crediting Mechanism (PACM)—aim to ensure the generation of high-integrity carbon credits, supporting global climate goals while opening new opportunities for countries like Nepal to participate in international carbon finance.

PACM allows countries and private actors to collaborate on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, using a standardized framework to issue verified carbon credits. Two major standards were adopted during the recent meeting: one to determine the emission baselines (i.e., what would have happened without the project), and another to account for unintended emissions, known as ‘leakage’, that might occur elsewhere due to a project’s implementation.

The baseline standard requires a downward adjustment of emissions—starting with a 10 percent reduction below historical norms and continuing with at least a one percent decline annually. This move is aimed at avoiding over-crediting and increasing the climate integrity of the system. The leakage standard, meanwhile, mandates that all emissions displaced due to a project—such as increased deforestation in nearby areas—are accounted for. For REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) projects, alignment with national strategies is a prerequisite.

For Nepal, these decisions could be game-changing. With its extensive forest cover, successful history of community forestry, and national REDD+ framework already in place, Nepal is well-positioned to participate in PACM. The new rules provide clarity and credibility that can enhance Nepal’s ongoing conservation and reforestation efforts, ensuring they qualify for international carbon finance. Additionally, Nepal’s clean cookstove initiatives—which aim to reduce indoor air pollution and biomass use—could align with the Supervisory Body’s decision to bring older projects in line with the latest methodologies.

“We finally adopted a groundbreaking decision ensuring crediting levels are set consistently with a pathway to net neutrality, through a process of minimum downward adjustment of crediting levels over time,” said Martin Hession, chair of the Supervisory Body.

Maria AlJishi, vice-chair of the Supervisory Body, added: “These standards provide the clarity developers need to begin designing activities under the Paris Agreement Crediting Mechanism and are key to fully operationalizing it.”

For countries like Nepal, which are rich in natural resources but financially constrained, these developments offer more than just environmental benefits—they open the door to new streams of climate finance. The Supervisory Body also emphasized equitable benefit-sharing and capacity building, which could further assist Nepal in developing the institutional and technical systems required to effectively participate in PACM.

In support of national ownership and equity, the Body has also initiated discussions on how to ensure project benefits are fairly distributed in host countries. A dedicated consultation process and enhanced country engagement tools are expected to help countries like Nepal secure their share of mitigation benefits.

Despite the progress, the transition from older mechanisms like the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is expected to result in a short-term funding gap, as the pipeline for PACM projects is still in development. However, the first PACM methodologies are expected to be approved by the end of 2025, potentially enabling Nepal and others to begin designing eligible projects from 2026 onward.

As the global carbon market enters this new phase of integrity-focused evolution, Nepal has the opportunity to position itself as a regional leader in sustainable carbon project development—if it can mobilize the right strategies, partnerships, and institutional readiness.

Twenty three-year-old Samana Karki (name changed) woke up one early morning after receiving a barrage of disturbing messages. Someone had misused her photo to create a fake Facebook account to disseminate inappropriate contents. Karki was shocked. “I felt helpless,” she recalls.

Karki’s story reflects a broader, alarming trend of online harassment and misuse of digital platforms, raising questions about user safety and accountability in Nepal’s digital landscape.

According to DataReportal, 16.5m internet users were identified in Jan 2025, making up 55.8 percent of Nepal’s total population. As new media technologies, like social media, enable users to interact in two-way communication, the misuse of it has also grown. Most of these crimes appear on social media platforms like Facebook, Messenger, TikTok, WhatsApp, and Instagram.

Ramesh Thapa, central spokesperson of Nepal Police, says that social media as a tool for information sharing is being misused as a medium for cybercrime in recent days. As per Nepal Police, Annual Factsheet on Cyber Crime, complaints related to cybercrime increased by 119 percent in the fiscal year 2023/24 compared to 2022/23. The highest number of cybercrime cases was registered at the Cyber Bureau, while Sudurpashchim Province recorded the lowest. Among those affected, 44.32 percent were women.

Individuals facing harassment on social media in Nepal are protected under various legal provisions. Section 47 of the Electronic Transaction Act, 2063, criminalizes the act of teasing, harassing, or insulting an individual through an electronic medium. In sections 47 (1) and (2), there is a penalty for the culprit, a charging fine of Rs 100,000 and imprisonment of five years in case if anyone teases, rags, humiliates, or disrespects an individual through undignified activities, using online.

Additionally, Section 300 of the National Criminal Code, 2017 penalizes anyone with malicious intent to instill fear, distress, or uses written communication or digital media to threaten, annoy, tease, or defame another person. The offenders can face the punishment of imprisonment for up to one year, a fine up to Rs 10,000 or both.

Despite these legal provisions, Advocate Sulochana Dhital says: “The case of fraudulent activities, revelation of privacy, blackmailing have not been addressed independently. They don’t get much legal attention, and many women, girls, and even minors become victims due to the lack of sufficient legal provisions or remedies.”

An example that sheds light on this problem is the case of  Bina Rai (name changed), who was a victim of online fraud in Saptari. She received a WhatsApp message from someone posing as a government official offering financial assistance. Believing the message, she shared her personal details and made a payment. After reaching out several times after payment, and when follow-up communication stopped, Rai realized she had been scammed. Rai realized women's vulnerability in digital spaces where digital literacy and awareness are still lacking. She fears that her personal information might be used for inappropriate purposes.

Advocate Surendra Tiwari, of Imperial Law Associates, says: “To tackle the growing issue of digital crimes such as hacking and online fraud in Nepal, several improvements are necessary in the country’s cyber laws and enforcement mechanisms. The Electronic Transaction Act regulates the matters relating to offenses through electronic media in Nepal, but the cases of online harassment are still increasing, which indicates that the existing legal provisions are insufficient, so making their amendment is an absolute necessity.”

He adds: “There is still a significant lack of professionals necessary to investigate cybercrime cases and a lack of public awareness regarding online fraud. Many people still use weak passwords and fall for scams by clicking on any suspicious links, making it easier for hackers and scammers to gain access to the data of the people.”

Building on this concern, the spokesperson of Nepal police, Thapa, says: “The public must recognize the importance of the information shared by the police, as it plays a key role in preventing incidents like online fraud, identity theft, and cyberbullying.” He states that a collaborative awareness campaign under the Community Police Partnership is launched at the school and college level to promote cybersecurity awareness on a large scale. 

However, the rise of social media use, particularly among youth, has led to increasing cases of cyber abuse. One such example is Goma Poudel (name changed), who recalls the trauma of being blackmailed with private videos. “The widespread use of my videos is destroying me mentally,” she shares.  For her, the impact goes beyond privacy and is about psychological abuse, a digital violence that takes an immense mental toll. Poudel also reveals how she was blamed by society instead of being supported.

Addressing this societal perspective, Advocate Dhital says that women are objectified in various contexts, often blamed for being open to men, and face character assassination when they report online harassment. “This social stigma is coupled with fear in the police stations and even in the courts, where many staff are men, where women feel humiliated for repeating the same versions of harassment,” he says. 

Puja Neupane recalls how she fell victim to a job scam. A fraudster promised her a job in exchange for a Rs 50,000 advance payment. She later reported the issue, only to realize it had been a scam all along. “Had I known the consequences, I would never have handed the money in advance,” she says. Her case highlights the lack of awareness about cybercrime and the risk that accompanies Nepal’s digital transition.

In response to these rising cases, Advocate Tiwari says, the amendments to the existing laws of Nepal are required, along with the introduction of a new regulatory framework, as legal provisions that address online harassment remain largely ineffective. Both the enactment of comprehensive laws and their proper implementation are essential to ensure stronger legal protection for victims.

Tiwari says: “If the proposed Social Media Bill, which is currently under discussion in the Parliament, is enacted, then it will introduce a comprehensive regulatory framework targeting the misuse of social media platforms.”

Further, he shares that, the bill seeks to criminalize online behaviours that are currently widespread, including the use of social media as a tool for cyberbullying and harassment, creating fake ids, fraudulent transactions, hacking personal accounts or stealing sensitive information, and posting or sharing graphic or violent content, such as brutal photos or videos.  Nonetheless, Tiwari also acknowledges concerns. “If passed, this would bring many harmful online behaviours, including the use of social media to spread content related to gender violence, sexual harassment, prostitution, issues that  are prohibited under current laws,” he says.  “It may seek to curtail the freedom of expression at large and impact raw creativity and positive criticism.” He advocates a balanced approach to protect digital rights and safety.

With the continued expansion of digital media, there is a high probability of increased cybercrime in the future. In today’s world, where technology shapes nearly every aspect, understanding the complex effects of the digital landscape is essential. While these platforms can serve as an important tool for sharing information, they also pose threats when used irresponsibly. It is the urgent role of government bodies to take an active role in promoting digital safety and improving knowledge about cyber threats in a wider range, as it is urgent to address these issues.

Advocate Dhital underscores the need for a separate law that would focus only on cybercrime. “The existing law is the intermingling of many issues, resulting in being unable to incorporate many more issues related to cyber or online crime,” she says.

Dhital recommends a stronger penalty for repeated offences, along with free counselling and legal aid to victims to support their mental state. “Introducing an online harassment course in the school curriculum is also essential, as people’s daily lives are highly influenced by what they consume online. Understanding the dos and don’t of the internet in this digital age is critical,” she says.

The first edition of Sagarmatha Sambaad, a global dialogue forum, concluded on Sunday issuing a 25-point declaration titled the ‘Sagarmatha Call for Action’. Foreign Minister Arzu Rana Deuba announced the declaration and officially closed the three-day event held in Kathmandu under the theme “Climate Change, Mountains, and the Future of Humanity.”

Speaking at the closing ceremony, Minister Deuba emphasized that the Sagarmatha Sambaad successfully amplified the voices of mountain and island communities suffering the brunt of the climate crisis. She called for collective global efforts to translate the forum’s outcomes into concrete action and underscored Nepal’s commitment to raising the dialogue’s key messages in various international platforms.

Minister Deuba described the Sambaad as a historic initiative that reinforced shared global commitments to mitigate the impacts of climate change. She also confirmed that the second edition of the Sagarmatha Sambaad will be held in 2027.

The Sagarmatha Sambaad is an initiative of the Government of Nepal aimed at fostering dialogue on pressing global issues. This year’s theme centered on mountains, climate, and future sustainability bringing together high-level delegations from 12 countries and over 175 international participants. The next edition will be organized on a different theme.

‘Sagarmatha Call for Action’ emphasized the urgent need to safeguard glaciers and mountain ecosystems in the face of accelerating climate change. Released as the outcome document of the Sambaad, the declaration recognized climate change as an “unprecedented challenge” that threatens both present and future generations, calling for immediate and coordinated global action. It reaffirms international commitments to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Paris Agreement, and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The declaration drew on recent United Nations resolutions that declare 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation and designate March 21 as World Day for Glaciers. It also notes the UN’s declaration of 2023–2027 as the Five Years of Action for the Development of Mountain Regions, reinforcing the global commitment to sustainable mountain development. It highlighted the critical role mountain glaciers play in regulating hydrological cycles and providing vital services to both upland and downstream communities. “The receding cryosphere is putting immense pressure on snow-fed river systems that sustain species, ecosystems and the livelihoods of billions,” the declaration warns.

It further underlined the disproportionate impact of climate change on mountain communities, despite their minimal contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions. Melting glaciers, the dialogue noted, are not only contributing to sea-level rise but also triggering cascading disasters like landslides, floods, droughts and extreme weather events.

Calling mountains the “guardians of civilizational heritages, biodiversity and freshwater resources,” the ‘Sagarmatha Call for Action’ calls for the recognition of their role in ensuring climate-resilient agriculture, clean energy, nature-based tourism and sustainable livelihoods.

Besides the opening, plenary and closing sessions as well as side events, the dialogue featured 13 parallel sessions focused on five thematic areas.

Speaking at a press meet following the conclusion of the Sambaad, Foreign Secretary Amrit Bahadur Rai said the government, as the organizer, was successful in hosting the dialogue and that the event met its expectations.

When asked about the limited presence of high-level international leaders and the absence of any heads of state or government, Rai responded that this was Nepal’s first attempt at organizing such a forum, and participation from neighboring countries at high levels made it a success.

The highest-ranking guests at the event included Xiao Jie, Vice-chairperson of the Standing Committee of China’s 14th National People’s Congress (NPC); Bhupender Yadav, India’s Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change; Mukhtar Babayev, COP29 President and Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Azerbaijan; Sharmeen Soneya Murshid, Advisor to the Ministry of Social Welfare and the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs of Bangladesh; Gem Tshering, Minister for Energy and Natural Resources of Bhutan; and Thoriq Ibrahim, Minister of Tourism and Environment of the Maldives. A video message of UN Secretary-General António Guterres was also shown at the event.

Quoting a metaphor, Foreign Secretary Rai said, “In the eyes of a flower, the world is a flower; in the eyes of thorns, the world is a thorn,” suggesting that perceptions vary and that the event should be seen in a positive light. He added that the Sambaad had helped strengthen Nepal’s soft power on the international stage.

Rai also noted that the ‘Sagarmatha Call for Action’ would be taken forward by the government and incorporated into various national policies, plans, and programs.

The 25-point declaration

• Reaffirm the urgency to hold the increase in the global average temperature to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by accelerating mitigation actions, building adaptive capacity and resilience, addressing loss and damage, and strengthening partnerships to ensure a sustainable future for all.
• Encourage countries to set ambitious emissions reduction targets in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) 3.0 to keep 1.5°C alive, aligned with the latest science that calls for urgent and transformative global action.
• Further encourage countries to develop and implement National Adaptation Plans to respond to country—specific adaptation needs.
• Call for enhanced provision and mobilization of international financial support, particularly through grants and concessional financing for implementation of climate actions in developing countries, including countries in special situations.
• Encourage collective efforts to ensure equitable and simplified access for the developing countries, particularly those vulnerable to climate change, to the international climate finance from bilateral, multilateral and alternative sources, including the operating entities of the Financial Mechanisms and the Funds under the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement.
• Support the call for the establishment of a dedicated fund for the development of mountain countries to mobilize targeted financial resources for climate action and sustainable development in mountainous regions.
• Prioritize the recognition, respect, and rewarding of mountain ecosystem services through leveraging existing and innovative financing sources.
• Emphasize the role of private sector finance and carbon markets in scaling up sustainable climate actions.
• Strengthen global and regional partnerships to facilitate access to climate-friendly technologies and enhance capacity building.
• Reaffirm the need for collaboration among the policymakers, scientific institutions, private sector and other relevant stakeholders to drive innovation and mutual learning to formulate appropriate policies and programmes that address the inherent vulnerabilities to climate change.
• Acknowledge the importance of promoting green, resilient and inclusive development, ranging from small to large-scale infrastructures, in both rural and urban communities, as appropriate.
• Stress the significance of clean energy, energy efficiency and just energy transitions, recognizing the importance of powering the future through clean energy as well as green, circular and bio-economies.
• Promote science, technology and innovation-based solutions for addressing climate-induced disasters, and conserving glaciers, water resources, forests and agricultural systems.
• Encourage dialogues on mountains and climate change agenda with special focus on triple planetary crisis and short-lived climate forcers, given their profound impact on regional climate, monsoons, cryosphere and public health.
• Recognize the urgency of strengthening data systems, ensuring data sharing and interoperability, and developing climate attribution and early warning mechanisms tailored to the needs of developing countries.
• Underscore the need to establish a robust linkage between mountain and ocean-specific risk assessment, monitoring, and early warning systems using advanced science, technology, and innovation.
• Promote climate justice across all climate actions by ensuring fair, inclusive and evidence-based solutions to the developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change.
• Foster inclusive climate actions through active participation of children, youth, women, persons with disabilities, senior citizens, and maintain gender balance while upholding intra- and inter-generational equity.
• Call to initiate the creation of a multi-stakeholder international platform on mountain and climate change for dialogue, innovation and empowerment, with the aim of amplifying the voices of mountain communities in global climate processes.
• Recognize the role of local and indigenous communities in climate policies, programmes and actions, including adaptation and conservation initiatives.
• Emphasize the need to develop mechanisms for payment of environmental services, enabling them to adopt innovative climate financing.
• Emphasize the need for developing knowledge centers, sharing best practices, and enhancing the roles of local communities in climate policies, programs and actions.
• Resolve to forge a common voice for urgent climate action that resonates from the Sagarmatha to the seas, and from highlands to islands.
• Acknowledge the relevance of the theme of the first edition of the Sagarmatha Sambaad in highlighting the adverse impacts of climate change from mountains to lowlands; forging common understanding and actions to uplift communities in vulnerable situations; and reaffirming commitment to continue working for a just, resilient and sustainable future for all.
• Express appreciation to all the dignitaries and delegates for attending the Sagarmatha Sambaad, a permanent forum to foster global dialogue on key issues of national, regional and global significance and look forward to its continuity ahead.