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Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in Nepal, contributing 23.95 percent to the nation’s GDP and providing jobs to more than 60 percent of the population. However, the sector faces several problems, mainly food security, attributed to the high usage of imported fertilizers, most of which are urea. In fiscal year 2024-25, Nepal plans to import around 550,000 tons of chemical fertilizers, with urea constituting a bulk. Moreover, the Nepal government has allocated a budget Rs 27.95bn as subsidy to ensure a steady supply of fertilizers to the farmers. Hence, the government bears nearly two-thirds of the fertilizer price to help alleviate the pressure on farmers. However, constant supply breaks and bad distribution channels threaten food production in Nepal, necessitating the construction of a urea manufacturing plant to boost food security.

JICA study report 1984

Nepal’s attempt at local production of fertilizer began in 1984, when Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) conducted a feasibility study on the production of 275 TPD green urea plants in Nepal. The primary focus was to produce green hydrogen via water electrolysis, one of the percussors for urea. However, Nepal’s hydropower capacity was only 156 MW at that time, making electricity per unit price very high. The study concluded that the water electrolysis method was only feasible if the electricity price was reduced by 40 percent, and hence the idea was abandoned.

IBN report 2015

The Infrastructure Development Corporation, Karnataka (IDeCK) and the Institution of Agricultural Technologists (IAT), along with Shah Consultant International Limited, Nepal, under the Office of Investment Board Nepal (OIBN) conducted the 2015 feasibility study on 700 kT/year urea plant, which became the second major attempt to develop a urea fertilizer plant in Nepal since the 1984 JICA study. The study evaluated Nepal’s escalating fertilizer import situation as price instabilities and supply chain breakdowns endangered national food security. The analysis assessed three production methods: electrolysis, coal gasification and natural gas steam reforming for hydrogen production. The study concluded that using natural gas as feedstock made the urea plant feasible. The research team recommended that Nepal should import natural gas from Jagdishpur (India) through pipelines followed by plant construction on a 400-acre site in Dhalkebar Dhanusha as the country lacks natural gas extraction capabilities. The evaluation showed that a natural gas-based plant costs $665m, coal gasification totalled $953m and electrolysis reached $1,305m. The research base considered that the government of Nepal would import natural gas at a fixed price from India for smooth operations of the urea plant. 

IBN comparative report 2021

The Investment Board Nepal (IBN) has prepared a report that examines two urea production methods, including natural gas-based and water electrolysis-based (green hydrogen) systems. The analysis for 701,250 T/year urea demonstrates that natural gas-based manufacturing meets financial criteria through cost-effective capital investments totaling $665m and production expenses amounting to $278 per ton. However, this process requires a 108-km gas pipeline from India. The risks associated with Indian natural gas imports become substantial due to two factors: India will deplete its gas reserves by 2040, and gas produced in the country will increase in price to double its current levels until then. This creates long-term supply uncertainty coupled with high costs. The water electrolysis process is environmentally friendly yet remains uncommercial because it comes with billion-dollar capital expenses ($1.3bn) and produces hydrogen at $656 per ton, requiring 450 MW of daily electrical power and CO₂ capture from cement facilities. According to the report, Dhalkebar stands out as the optimal location because of its existing infrastructure, and the authors endorse establishing a public-private funding partnership. The future development of green ammonia through water electrolysis requires subsidized electricity costs to become viable. The research demonstrates that local fertilizer production would decrease Nepal’s dependence on imported materials and subsidy programs, yet essential infrastructure development and supportive policies need implementation.

KU feasibility report 2022

The Green Hydrogen Lab at Kathmandu University evaluated the possibility of generating 200 kT/year of green urea in 2022 and submitted its findings to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development. The feasibility study primarily focused on the surplus hydroelectricity in Nepal, which serves as the key benefit for local green hydrogen production through water electrolysis, thus ensuring the proposed urea plant operates independently from Indian natural gas imports. The study promoted domestic renewable-based solutions for urea production as it recognized the risks and price instability of importing natural gas along with the difficulties of managing border pipelines. The use of green hydrogen instead of fossil fuels in plant operations would make Nepal a pioneer in sustainable industrial development through substantial carbon emission reduction. The research demonstrated how green urea production qualifies as carbon credit material suitable for international offset programs. The new income source generated from green hydrogen operations would increase project profitability, thus attracting foreign investment. The report advocates for government incentives, policy backing, and public-private partnership (PPP) to realize the successful deployment of the green urea plant that will strengthen Nepal’s food security, energy independence and climate commitments.

GGGI report 2024

In 2024, the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) Nepal performed extensive research on green fertilizer production in Nepal by creating Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) and Urea from green hydrogen. Researchers analyzed renewable energy integration into hydrogen production by obtaining 100 MW from the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA). The study focused on the production of 103,950 T/year green urea and 264,000 T/year DAP. WindPower Nepal and Hydrovert Services led the project forward by performing a Pre-FEED study to evaluate the technical aspects, economic viability and infrastructural requirements for building a green hydrogen-based fertilizer plant. The study assessed the Bhalu Chira site’s characteristics by examining its ability to accommodate the proposed facility through assessments of land resources and logistical and accessibility factors. The total capital cost of the green urea plant was calculated to be $284.88m, and the capital cost of DAP was around $268.26m. Green hydrogen utilization within the project will improve Nepal's food production independence alongside carbon footprint reduction initiatives. The research findings will create a base for upcoming green fertilizer industry policy decisions and investment decisions in Nepal.

Hariharpurgadhi pre-feasibility study 2024

In 2024, Hariharpurgadhi rural municipality (Sindhuli district) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Kathmandu University to conduct a pre-feasibility assessment of a 200 kT/year green urea production facility. The project's central point involved extracting carbon dioxide from cement factories in Hetauda before transporting it through a constructed pipeline to the urea production facility. The research demonstrated pipeline transport of CO₂ was not economical because of substantial construction expenses and complex transportation requirements. The pre-feasibility study recommended the construction of a cement industry along with the green urea plant at Hariharpurgadhi as the solution to maintain a continuous carbon dioxide supply for urea synthesis. The project could develop a sustainable industrial cycle through this combined strategy to convert cement-based CO₂ emissions into synthesized ammonia using green hydrogen. The research demonstrated that the proposed solution could help Nepal decrease its dependence on imported fertilizers and advance carbon capture and utilization (CCU) practices that support a sustainable agricultural sector.

Conclusion

A green urea plant establishment in Nepal will produce lasting advantages since the government has to allocate billions of rupees for agricultural sector fertilizer subsidies every year. The domestic production of urea from green hydrogen combined with local carbon dioxide supplies enables Nepal to decrease expensive import costs while establishing independent fertilizer availability. The stable fertilizer prices, along with prompt distribution, will help farmers decrease expenses while improving their productivity levels. National food security will be enhanced through this project because it delivers dependable fertilizer supplies that produce elevated crop harvests and safeguard against worldwide supply chain interruptions. The initiative allows Nepal to develop carbon credits from green hydrogen and industrial emission capture activities, supporting domestic climate goals and accessing international carbon financing. Further, Nepal could generate carbon credits that can be traded internationally, creating an additional revenue stream. Establishing a green urea plant will lead to employment opportunities at various stages, including construction, plant operation and maintenance, stimulating economic growth in the region. Moreover, a circular economy practice in Nepal can develop when setting up a cement sector alongside the urea plant to convert its CO₂ emissions into valuable products instead of atmospheric release. These strategic developments will empower Nepal’s agricultural activities while decreasing government financial burdens and realizing sustainable growth through new industrial development alongside environmental management.

Earlier this year, Nepal adopted its National Action Plan (NAP) on Business and Human Rights. This NAP was launched by the government of Nepal, Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Security (MoLESS) in collaboration with the UNDP and supported by the governments of Japan and Norway. This is Nepal’s most substantial implementation on a national scale since the United Nations Guiding Principles (UNGPs) on Business and Human Rights were formally endorsed by the UN Human Rights Council in 2011. This ambitious five-year plan (2024-2028) aims to integrate human rights into Nepal’s economic development strategy, aligning with the UNGP’s 31 principles on governmental and corporate responsibilities to prevent and address business-related human rights concerns and issues. However, while this move is significant, it is essential to specifically address the challenges in the high-altitude mountaineering and adventure tourism sectors, where human rights issues remain a pressing concern. Looking forward, it is essential for Nepali businesses to implement human rights standards with active collaboration between the government and civil society.

BHR safety risk

Business and Human Rights (BHR) issues in Nepal are deeply entrenched in industries like adventure tourism, where structural inequalities and weak regulatory frameworks often expose vulnerable local populations on potential risks of human rights issues. The high-altitude mountaineering sector, for instance, showcases stark examples of these challenges. Indigenous Nepali workers, including guides and porters, form the backbone of this industry, yet they are disproportionately subjected to challenging working conditions, low wages and limited access to safety measures on training or equipment. Nearly half of all fatalities on Sagarmatha have been Nepali workers, highlighting the life-threatening risks they endure while facilitating the ambitions of international climbers. These figures fail to capture the many more who suffer life-long injuries, frostbite or post-traumatic stress from their work.

Those identified potential risks of these workers are compounded by cross-border employment practices, where international Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) often operate through local tour operators, distancing themselves from direct accountability for workers’ rights. This disconnect not only allows the perpetuation of unfair labor practices but also undermines the development of systemic solutions, such as robust safety standards and equitable profit-sharing mechanisms. Inadequate governmental oversight exacerbates this issue, leaving workers vulnerable to risks would not only enhance the sustainability of the world-renowned Nepali tourism sectors but also affirm the fundamental rights of Nepali workers, fostering greater equity and resilience in the industry.

National action plan

Nepali stakeholders, including civil society organizations (CSOs), business groups, academics and the media, are advocating for a participatory, transparent and accountable approach to the National Action Plan (NAP) on Business and Human Rights (BHR). Their key recommendations include:

• Inclusive process: Involve diverse groups, particularly those directly affected, and adopt the UN’s 15-step model developed by the UN Working Group on Business & Human Rights (UNWG).
• Transparency and accessibility: Ensure draft documents from agencies and businesses are made publicly available, offer platforms for feedback, and provide accessible mechanisms for redress.
• Alignment with international standards: National laws should align with international human rights norms, focusing on labor, indigenous, and gender rights.
• Integration with global frameworks: Ensure that the recently adopted NAP aligns with global initiatives, including the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement on climate change at a local level.
• Effective monitoring system: Develop a targeted implementation plan and system focused on mountaineering and adventure tourism, incorporating periodic reviews led by the Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Security (MoLESS). Ensure the active participation of industry representatives, civil society organizations, local guides’ union and affected communities, in the planning and evaluation process.

Lessons from global practices

Many Western countries are pushing for stronger measures to tackle modern slavery and improve business practices. Global pressure from investors and new regulatory frameworks are encouraging stricter human rights standards, including mandatory Human Rights Due Diligence (HRDD). This year, the European Union introduced a directive requiring large companies to address human rights and environmental impacts in their operations and supply chains. It includes mandates for due diligence policies, risk assessments and climate transition plans, with penalties like hefty fines and civil liability for non-compliance. These developments are expected to inspire similar measures in other regions.

In contrast, Nepal faces hurdles in implementing binding regulations for human rights in tourism supply chains. Current strategies emphasize voluntary guidelines over mandatory requirements, which may encourage some businesses to adopt human rights disclosures. However, the non-binding nature of these measures risks inconsistent implementation by businesses, potentially limiting their impact on ensuring widespread adherence to human rights standards in business practices.

Way forward 

Nepal’s adoption of a NAP on BHR marks a vital step in promoting human rights in business practices. To advance further, Nepal should draw lessons from global efforts transitioning from soft law guidelines to mandatory, state-enforced Human Rights Due Diligence (HRDD) laws. Binding regulations that require companies to address human rights risks are too early to judge whether they are effective in driving accountability and systemic change, however, it is important for the government to take an active role in promoting businesses to respect BHR according to global UNGP standards. Instead of merely adopting Western-centric models, Nepal can tailor these approaches to its unique context, starting with a sector-specific focus.

Proper enforcement of Nepal’s NAP on BHR within mountaineering and tourism is essential. Effective implementation of NAP in these areas would ensure critical safeguards such as fair wages, safety training and equitable working conditions. However, a practical strategy could possibly involve piloting binding human rights laws in key industries like mountaineering and tourism, where vulnerable workers face some of the most severe risks. This pilot approach would allow Nepal to enforce critical safeguards, such as fair wages, safety training and equitable working conditions, while gradually building the capacity for broader implementation. By leading with tourism—a sector central to its economy and global identity—Nepal can demonstrate its commitment to protecting human rights while fostering sustainable business practices. This targeted enforcement would serve as a model for extending binding BHR regulations to other sectors in the future.

Shining a spotlight on the Business and Human Rights (BHR) aspects of Nepal’s iconic mountaineering and trekking industry, while addressing the different issues of indigenous workers, is crucial. This approach emphasizes Nepal’s commitment to BHR as an essential framework for achieving the SDGs, promoting UN charters and ensuring better livelihoods for the backbone of its mountaineering sector.

“Shall We All Commit Suicide?” Sir Winston S Churchill ominously warned in his 1924 essay about the alarming progress of biological warfare (BW), where engineered diseases could target humans, animals and agriculture. He wrote, “A study of Disease—of Pestilences, methodically prepared and deliberately launched upon man and beast—is certainly being pursued in the laboratories of more than one great country. Blight to destroy crops, Anthrax to slay horses and cattle, Plague to poison not armies only but whole districts—such are the lines along which military science is remorselessly advancing.” A century ago, Churchill predicted the risks of bioterrorism, foreseeing military strategies using engineered bioweapons that could devastate humanity and ecosystems.

In an op-ed for Business Insider in 2017, Microsoft founder and billionaire philanthropist Bill Gates warned “Infectious virus is a greater risk to humanity than nuclear war. Whether such an outbreak occurs due to a quirk of nature or is deliberately released by a terrorist, epidemiologists say a fast-moving airborne pathogen could kill more than 30m people in less than a year.” Gates emphasized the cataclysmic gravity of BW agents, indicating bioterrorism—the deliberate release of natural or engineered biological agents to harm humans, animals, or environments for terrorist purposes—could become one of humanity’s greatest perils.

Historical perspective

BW dates back to the 6th century BCE when the Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with ergot fungus, causing delusions, cardiovascular issues and death, and has since been a strategic tool in military conflicts. In the 4th century BCE, Scythian archers dipped arrows in animal feces to induce infections, while in 204 BCE, Hannibal used venomous snake-filled clay pots against Pergamene ships. In 1346, the Tatars catapulted plague-infected corpses into Kaffa, contributing to Black Death’s spread across Europe, which killed up to 200m people in the 14th century alone, wiping out nearly half of Europe's population.

During the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors used smallpox-infected blankets to devastate indigenous South American populations. The industrial revolution advanced microbiology, inadvertently enabling the weaponization of pathogens. During World War I, Germany allegedly infected enemy livestock with anthrax.

During World War II, Japan’s Units 731 and 100 weaponized pathogens like B anthrax, Yersinia pestis, V cholera and Shigella in ceramic bombs, dispersing them over Chinese cities via aerosols and testing them on prisoners, causing epidemics and an estimated 10,000 prisoners’ deaths.

The Cold War saw further advancements, with the United States and the Soviet Union developing extensive bioweapons programs.

Despite the 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention banning bioweapon development, production, and storage, signed by most UN countries, the enduring threat of bioterrorism remains alarming.

Modern bioterrorism

In 1984, the Rajneeshee sect conducted the first known US bioterror attack, contaminating salad bars in The Dalles, Oregon, with Salmonella typhimurium, infecting 751 and hospitalizing 45.

The 2001 US anthrax attacks, where letters containing B anthracis spores were mailed to media and government offices, caused 22 infections, five fatalities and required 30,000 people to undergo antibiotic treatment. The attack fueled widespread fear, prompted biosecurity policy reforms and incurred over $1bn in response costs, highlighting bioterrorism’s social, economic and global security impact.

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention classifies biological agents into three categories A, B, and C based on their threat level to public health and national security. Category A agents represent the highest threat due to their high transmissibility, mortality and societal impact, include B. anthracis, Francisella tularensis, Y. pestis, botulinum toxin, smallpox and hemorrhagic fever viruses (Ebola, Marburg).

Category B agents pose a moderate threat, with lower mortality but significant health implications, requiring enhanced diagnostic and surveillance, include Brucella, Clostridium epsilon toxin, Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella, Ricin toxin and V cholera.

Viruses are now considered the greatest biothreat in the EU’s expanded list including emerging and re-emerging pathogens—SARS, MERS, WestNile, Mpox and influenza A (H5, H7).

Advancements in biotechnology, CRISPR gene editing and gain-of-function research have reduced barriers to developing bioweapons, raising concerns about non-state actors misusing engineered pathogens or chimera with enhanced virulence or drug resistance. Unlike conventional weapons, BW agents remain silent, invisible and capable of widespread devastation, underscoring the urgency for global biodefense measures.

Biodefense

Biosecurity measures are vital for protecting biological research and mitigating bioterrorism risks. Early detection remains a challenge, as pathogens can spread undetected before symptoms manifest, complicating containment efforts. The Covid-19 pandemic exposed critical gaps in global biodefense, emphasizing the necessity for enhanced surveillance, rapid-response systems and international cooperation. A 2021 Lancet article by Long and Marzi reveals the global biodefense market at $12.2bn in 2019, projected to reach $19.8bn by 2027, growing at a 5.8 percent annual rate.

Strict biosecurity protocols regulate pathogen access, laboratory safety and dual-use research, but inconsistent enforcement and weak compliance mechanisms in many nations create vulnerabilities that could be exploited. A unified global biosecurity framework is essential to ensure scientific advancements benefit humanity, not destruction.

The Biological Weapons Convention prohibits the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological and toxin weapons, yet its enforcement remains inadequate.

Geopolitical tensions complicate biosecurity by fueling mistrust and obstructing global cooperation. Scientific and political debates over SARS-CoV-2’s origins underscore concerns about laboratory safety and accidental pathogen leaks, and the need for stringent oversight in high-containment laboratories.

Safeguarding public health, Nepal’s three-tier health system must enhance surveillance, regulate biotechnology and enforce ethical research standards. Additionally, the Nepali Army and security agencies should develop robust capabilities to detect, prevent and respond to potential bioterrorism threats or bioweapons. This requires coordinated efforts in intelligence gathering, rapid response mechanisms and cross-sectoral collaboration to mitigate hazards and ensure national biosecurity.

Lessons from past pandemics and bioterrorism incidents must inform future biodefense strategies. As Churchill and Gates forewarned, bioterrorism remains an alarming threat. A failure to act now could lead to consequences far more catastrophic than any seen before.

Social sites have lured our sensation and apparently offered us some tangible blessings to ease our lives. Minus social sites, hardly any second of modern-day life can be imagined. From connecting to kith and kin to fellow friends to sharpening the creativity, social sites are acknowledged boundlessly. However, those much-endeared social sites have shed toxic abuses and irreparable multifold losses on the spectrum of sound social life along with fabric of well-formed faiths. Giving us an inch, those have taken away miles causing us plunge into more than dozens of chronic bottlenecks by fermenting exponential enervation on both the individual and social life of mass users. Pluralities of paradoxes and irony have shaped, rather intoxicated and addicted, the new generation into a deeper sense of dismay and negative note.

The foremost paradox of social sites is that they are causing users to spend and waste huge amounts of time for no reason. Many reports are released and those spotlight the fact that most users hang on sites merely for updates, already known news and sharing personal opinion and ideas which might not generate any productive outcomes into either of individual or social life. Brain rot and doom scrolling have festered the situation. As per statistics of 2024, a person spends an average of 143 minutes per day on social media. However, 40 percent of people—who have at least one social media account—feel they have to check them at least once every three hours to avoid feeling anxious. From grandmother to an eight-year-old kid, all are in virtual communities and racing to swipe the newsfeed every 10 minutes. Such an added sense of addiction and intoxication on social sites, thus, obligates people to waste quality time for not any quality output at all.  

Besides waste of time, a serious decline in the creativity of human beings is one of the horrendous impacts of social sites noticed in the last few years. Students have begun to lose the self-generated answers. ChatGPT and Deepseek have converted all curious learning minds into mere a murmuring machine and mute bystander toward self-built analysis or logics. Academicians often have been defamed for plagiarism. Relying on easily available materials on the single click or on tip of a finger, the human mind has retarded and retired from being creative. Being innovative has been intelligibly blocked in the course of being imitative from social sites.  School children to university graduates across the globe have been reportedly losing self-creativity because of excessive reliance on social sites. Most of them have metamorphosed to mundane copy-paste machines.

Following the waste of time and loss of creativity, excess misinformation, which is called infodemics, has browbeaten and created terror on the public domain. Fake news, scams, scandals and unverified personal assumptions have confused people a lot. Many severely shocking news are also posted that have generated negative worldviews, stigmatized people, relegated people to helplessness, uncovered the sense of only decay and destruction everywhere. Often it has worked as psychodemic and apocalyptic terror too.  

Apart from the aforementioned abuses, substantially alarming is that it has even emerged as a new form of war. Authors Emerson Brooking and PW Singer in their book titled ‘Like War: Weaponization of Social Media’ convincingly draw an analogy between modern war fort and social media. It has been heavily used to underestimate others, extend control and undue leverage, belittle or disparage others’ fame, seduce others’ success, defame rest and destroy the image or strength and so on. Any objection will be posted on social media and that shall be responded with a flow of counter likes and dislikes or even much vituperative remarks and comments. 

Crimes and social disorder, sexual misconducts or activities of extreme unethical tempo cannot be denied as the bane of social sites these days. A harrowing scenario of a ballooning graph of family discord and divorce cases noticed in the recent past in Nepal is mostly generated and commenced on the backdrop of social sites. As per a news report, Kathmandu district court alone has 4,400-plus petitions seeking divorce. The cases of divorce count on top of the list among all writs filed in base or district courts nationally. Social sites have fueled disassociation, conspiracy, unwonted connections too, which has spoiled the rhythm of morality and righteous life in the infatuation of happy life. It has crumbled and crushed the ethics in society.  

As social sites avail all types of contents, it equally assists the people having wrong intention and intending to foil the fabric of disciplined society. A research article titled ‘Anti-social Network; Framing Social Media in Wartime’ (2020) mentions that how to hack the password is one of much searched contents in Google. Such a nature of human or social media users drives society into more antisocial modes and intends to break the society than to make it.

Social sites have even inflicted societies through online robbery and other types of frauds, time and again in the name of prizes, lotteries and other types of funds gone unclaimed or secretly deposited to our names by someone else and so on. Cyber bureau of Nepal Police is reportedly receiving about a couple of dozen such complaints of cheating and other frauds daily.

Excessive digital addiction that is eventually resulting in health hazards and psychodemic symptoms are no less worrisome. Extreme depersonalization is what has seriously taken the nerve of the people. Because of social sites, people hardly have time for themselves and families. Being excessively occupied with gadgets brutally kills time that others friends and family members may be seeking.  

More show-ups and filthy promotions in light of social sites have paralyzed the honest nature of human actions and activities. Demeaning social services for mere fantasy and photo shoots have often doubled the spirit of humiliation and marginalization for the rest. Victims have been unnecessarily exposed to society. Whereas posting the exclusively personal activities like family celebrations and wishes on sites have far deviated and digressed the sites from its real use. Rather than attending seminars, posting a photo of it becomes important; rather than taking tea, posting a shot gets prioritized and appealing to the masses. Filthy promotion of personal activities has cultivated a sense of useless competition in meaningless manners among humans.    

In a nutshell, as of 2024, approximately 5.4bn people use social media and it has risked converting this generation as an ‘e-tribe’, a popular term coined by South Korean academic experts in 2006. Being vastly virtual might have blessed us to have little delights from learning to earning as well but have profoundly paralyzed society and caused it to sail at the trajectory of lethargy, laziness, immorality, health-hazards and many other obnoxiously negative notes.  So, let’s be aware of such unsocial outcomes of social sites before it becomes too late to respond.