Submit your Article

The discovery of antibiotics revolutionized modern medicine, saving millions of lives. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first widely used antibiotic, which marked the beginning of an era where bacterial infections became treatable. This breakthrough led to the development of various classes of antibiotics, significantly reducing mortality from bacterial diseases. However, even at the dawn of this discovery, Fleming foresaw a potential issue. In his 1945 Nobel Prize speech, he warned:

“But I would like to sound one note of warning. It is not difficult to make microbes resistant to penicillin in the laboratory by exposing them to concentrations not sufficient to kill them, and the same thing has occasionally happened in the body. There is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.”

His words were prophetic. Today, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global health crisis, and we are witnessing the rise of so-called ‘superbugs’—bacteria that no longer respond to antibiotics. As microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to resist the effects of drugs that once effectively treated infections, standard treatments become ineffective, allowing diseases to persist and spread. This growing resistance is driven by a combination of factors, including the overuse of antibiotics in human medicine, excessive use in animal agriculture, poor infection control, and environmental contamination.

The emergence of superbugs has made treating infections increasingly difficult. Bacteria like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDR-TB), and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) are causing longer illnesses, higher treatment costs, and increased mortality. The implications are alarming—routine surgeries, chemotherapy, and organ transplants rely on effective antibiotics, and the rise of resistant bacteria threatens the success of these procedures. The World Health Organization estimates that by 2050, AMR could lead to 10m deaths annually if urgent action is not taken. The economic burden is equally severe, with prolonged hospital stays and expensive alternative treatments straining healthcare systems. In agriculture, AMR reduces livestock productivity and increases foodborne illnesses, putting global food security at risk.

For decades, antibiotics were widely used in livestock not only for treating diseases but also for growth promotion. This practice allowed farmers to raise larger, faster-growing animals, meeting the demands of a growing population. However, the excessive use of antibiotics in animal agriculture contributed to the spread of resistance. In response, many countries have now banned or strictly regulated the use of antibiotics for growth promotion, encouraging alternatives such as probiotics and improved animal husbandry. Despite these efforts, antibiotic residues continue to pose a risk, as they persist in milk, meat, and eggs, potentially exposing consumers to low doses of antibiotics that further drive resistance. The issue extends beyond just the farm. When these residues enter the food chain, they create an environment where bacteria are constantly exposed to sublethal doses of antibiotics, increasing the chances of resistance developing and spreading.

Beyond hospitals and farms, antibiotic residues have seeped into the environment, creating an overlooked but serious AMR hotspot. Wastewater from hospitals, pharmaceutical industries, and livestock farms often carries antibiotic residues into rivers and other water bodies. These contaminated environments serve as breeding grounds for resistant bacteria, increasing the likelihood of AMR spreading through water sources, wildlife, and agricultural ecosystems. The presence of antibiotics in rivers not only affects aquatic organisms but also contributes to resistance genes being transferred between bacteria, making it even harder to control the spread. This environmental contamination, often ignored in AMR discussions, is a significant driver of resistance, highlighting why tackling this issue requires a broader approach.

As a veterinarian, I have seen the consequences of AMR in animal health and food production. Infected animals that once responded to treatment now require stronger antibiotics or do not recover at all. This affects both small-scale farmers and large industries, reducing productivity and increasing costs. The economic loss is particularly severe in low-income countries where access to effective antibiotics is already limited. In such regions, resistant infections in animals mean longer illness periods, decreased milk or meat production, and greater financial strain on farmers who depend on livestock for their livelihoods. The risk is not limited to agriculture—AMR in animals can directly impact humans. Resistant bacteria can transfer from animals to people through direct contact, consumption of contaminated food, or even through environmental exposure, making AMR a shared concern for human and animal health alike.

AMR cannot be solved by just focusing on human health and human antibiotic control—addressing its spread in animals and the environment is equally critical. The One Health approach recognizes that human, animal, and environmental health are deeply linked, and addressing AMR requires coordinated efforts across multiple sectors. Responsible antibiotic use in healthcare, stricter regulations in livestock production, improved wastewater management, and sustainable agricultural practices must all be part of the solution. Veterinarians play a key role in this effort, ensuring that antibiotics are used responsibly in animals, educating farmers about alternative disease prevention strategies, and advocating for policies that reduce unnecessary antibiotic use.

Despite the challenges, there is hope. Many countries, including Nepal, have implemented national action plans to combat AMR, focusing on surveillance, regulation, and public awareness. Research into alternative treatments, such as phage therapy and antimicrobial peptides, is progressing, offering potential new solutions. Farmers and veterinarians are increasingly adopting better husbandry practices, including improved hygiene, vaccination programs, and nutritional management, reducing the need for antibiotics in the first place. However, change must happen faster. Awareness alone is not enough; coordinated global action is needed to slow down the spread of resistance before we lose one of the most powerful tools in modern medicine.

By taking a One Health approach and working together globally, we can help slow AMR and protect future generations from the looming threat of untreatable infections. The time to act is now, before Fleming’s warning turns into an irreversible reality. If we fail to control AMR, we risk entering a post-antibiotic era where common infections become deadly once again. As a veterinarian, I see the urgency of this issue every day, and I believe that only through a united effort—across human health, animal health, and environmental protection—can we hope to turn the tide against this silent pandemic.

Nepal’s private banking sector in the past years has collaborated with international organizations to finance climate resilience projects in the country. Several banks have secured funding and accreditation to support renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and climate adaptation initiatives. But where are they allocating the funds and what type of project is those funds benefiting? Or really these banks are funding the right project or are they investing these climate-related funds to other non-climate projects?

In June 2023, Laxmi Sunrise Bank collaborated with Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) to implement the Tarai Agribusiness and Enterprise Challenge Fund (TAECF) under the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA)-GGGI Climate Smart Agriculture project. This initiative aims to support micro and small enterprises in the agriculture sector by providing grants and facilitating access to finance. The Bank has to play a crucial role in offering loans to grantees approved by GGGI, strengthening the agricultural value chain in Madhes Province.

Despite efforts to obtain comments and updates on the project, Chief Information Officer (CIO) of Laxmi Sunrise Bank, did not respond to inquiries via email or phone. Even after reporting it to the Chief Grievances Officer, there was no further update.

In March 2024, Nepal Investment Mega Bank Limited (NIMB) became the first private-sector commercial bank in Nepal to receive accreditation from the Green Climate Fund (GCF). This accreditation enables NIMB to manage climate projects ranging from $50m to $250m, facilitating investments in renewable energy, solid waste management, and climate adaptation projects through public-private partnerships.

Khushbu Thapa Magar, the Green Climate Fund (GCF) Project Manager at NIMB, provided an in-depth response regarding the bank’s role in climate finance. Her response outlined the bank’s structured approach to climate finance, which includes two key stages: ‘Concept Note Preparation’ and ‘Full Funding Proposal Development’. Initially, the bank identifies and develops investment-ready projects aligned with Nepal’s climate priorities and GCF criteria. Once approved, a detailed funding proposal is created, including feasibility studies, financial structuring, environmental and social assessments, and a Gender Action Plan.

“NIMB’s project pipeline focuses on various sectors crucial to Nepal’s climate goals, including renewable energy, e-mobility, waste-to-energy solutions, sustainable agriculture, urban resilience, and climate adaptation efforts,” says Magar. “The bank prioritizes projects with high paradigm shift potential, ensuring that they can be scaled and replicated nationwide.”

Magar further highlighted NIMB’s investment strategy, which includes concessional funding, public-private partnerships, and structured financial mechanisms to de-risk climate projects. “Additionally, NIMB follows strict environmental and social safeguards, promotes gender equality and social inclusion (GESI), and aligns its projects with Nepal’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and Long-Term Strategies (LTS).”

In Oct 2023, Global IME Bank Limited (GIBL) secured a $25m loan from Global Climate Partnership Fund (GCPF) to promote climate-positive lending in Nepal. This funding is specifically allocated for energy efficiency and renewable energy projects, with a strong emphasis on electric mobility.

In Feb 2024, International Finance Corporation (IFC) invested $56m in GIBL to enhance access to finance for small and medium enterprises (SMEs), particularly women-owned businesses and those in rural areas. A portion of this funding is dedicated to climate mitigation efforts, including clean transportation, climate-smart agriculture, and solar energy projects.

In June 2024, the OPEC Fund for International Development provided a $25m loan to GIBL to support micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) while enhancing climate resilience in Nepal. This funding seeks to bridge financing gaps for MSMEs and expand the bank’s climate finance portfolio.

Despite attempts to obtain a statement, the CIO of GIBL did not respond to requests via email or phone. Even after reporting it to the Chief Grievances Officer, there was no update.

In May 2023, IFC invested $55m in Siddhartha Bank Limited (SBL) to increase access to finance for small businesses and foster climate finance in Nepal. The investment is expected to support clean transportation, climate-smart agriculture, and solar projects. However, no response was received from the CIO of SBL, despite multiple inquiries. The Chief Grievance Handling Officer was also not available.

These kinds of partnerships reflect Nepal’s growing engagement in climate finance and the private sector’s increasing role in sustainable development. With these collaborations, Nepal’s banking sector is positioning itself as a key player in financing the country’s transition toward a greener economy. However, challenges remain in ensuring the effective implementation of these funds and fostering greater transparency in climate-related investments.

The Donald Trump administration has sent a clear signal that it intends to pursue an aggressive strategy to counter Chinese influence across the Indo-Pacific region. In a significant policy address on March 25, US Secretary of Defense Pete Herseth outlined the administration’s vision for the region, marking the first comprehensive articulation of its Indo-Pacific strategy after assuming office in January. Herseth’s remarks built upon the Indo-Pacific Strategy (IPS) introduced during Trump's first presidency in 2017, while introducing new elements reflecting the current geopolitical landscape.

Speaking at an event hosted by the Daniel K Inouye Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies in Hawaii, Herseth emphasized the critical importance of US alliances in the region, stating: “Our alliances and partnerships in the Indo-Pacific matter a great deal to the United States. They matter because the Indo-Pacific is the region of consequences.” 

He reaffirmed the administration’s commitment to Trump's original vision of a “free and open Indo-Pacific,” first articulated during a 2017 speech in Vietnam, describing it as a framework where nations can prosper as sovereign and independent states.

The defense secretary’s remarks come amid already strained US-China relations, exacerbated by Trump's imposition of sweeping tariffs on Chinese goods. Herseth’s speech made clear that the administration intends to extend this tougher approach to military and security matters, declaring that “no one should question the United States' resolve to defend its interests in the Indo-Pacific and beyond.” He emphasized America's military superiority, vowing to maintain “the strongest, most effective and most lethal force in the world” to deter potential adversaries.

This renewed focus on the Indo-Pacific revives a strategy that has previously caused diplomatic complications for some regional partners. The original 2017 IPS identified Nepal as a US partner in its 2019 document, sparking significant domestic criticism in Kathmandu where the strategy was widely perceived as an anti-China military alliance. In 2022, the Joe Biden administration subsequently recalibrated the approach, emphasizing economic cooperation over military alignment and deliberately avoiding references to the IPS in official communications with Nepal to prevent controversy. This shift was particularly important following the backlash against the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) compact after US defense officials publicly linked it to the IPS in 2018.

Herseth’s address placed particular emphasis on strengthening military-to-military relationships across the region, suggesting that the Trump administration may seek to expand defense cooperation with countries like Nepal. This could include renewed pressure to finalize the long-pending State Partnership Program (SPP) agreement, which has been on hold due to Nepal’s concerns about upsetting its delicate balance between China and India. The US Indo-Pacific Command has maintained consistent engagement with Nepal’s military, and this cooperation is expected to intensify under the current administration.

The defense secretary framed the administration's approach as seeking “peace through strength” while attempting to reassure allies that “America First does not mean America only or America alone.” However, he acknowledged the need to reassess existing military partnerships, stating: “It means our military-to-military relationship must make sense for America and our partners. If there are imbalances, we will find them and we will fix those imbalances. We will right-size the obligations and responsibilities needed.”

Herseth’s current tour of the region, including stops in Guam, the Philippines, and Japan for high-level meetings with both military and civilian leaders, has drawn particular attention from Beijing. Analysts note that the Philippines holds special strategic significance in US planning, with Chinese commentator Shi Hong pointing out in Global Times that Manila’s geographic position—with its northern islands near Taiwan and western coastline facing the South China Sea—makes it particularly valuable for countering Chinese influence.

The administration’s strategy appears to involve pressuring wealthier regional nations to increase their defense spending while potentially boosting military assistance to smaller partners like Nepal. This approach presents Kathmandu with a complex diplomatic challenge, as accepting greater US military support could strain its relationships with both China and India. The key question for Nepalese policymakers will be how to navigate potential US pressure to enter into strategic agreements without compromising the country’s traditional non-aligned stance or its vital relationships with neighboring powers.

As the Trump administration moves to implement this more assertive Indo-Pacific strategy, the coming months will likely see increased US engagement across the region, with particular focus on strengthening military partnerships and countering Chinese influence. The extent to which smaller nations like Nepal can maintain their balancing act between major powers while responding to these new strategic pressures remains to be seen.

A visionary idea conceived by a Russian engineer in the mid-1950s—envisioning an elevator  connecting Earth to space via a concrete cable—has inspired a new era in construction. This  concept, known as the “Space Elevator,” may have sounded far-fetched at its inception, yet it laid the foundation for a revolution in material science. Central to this evolution is Ultra High  Performance Concrete (UHPC), a modern marvel with the potential to transform how we build our  future.

A leap from vision to reality 

The idea behind the space elevator is elegantly simple: anchor a mass in outer space, tether it to an  Earth station, and maintain constant tension along a 25,000 km cable that guides an elevator  between the two realms. Although such a structure demands materials of extraordinary strength—a challenge that even today remains partly unsolved—the emergence of nanotechnology has  opened up the possibility of fabricating ultra-strong nanotubes. It is within this framework that UHPC finds its entry, offering strength and durability that could someday make such futuristic projects a reality. 

Historically, concrete has evolved significantly. In the early 1950s, Otto Graf’s 70N/mm² concrete  barely sparked interest in the construction industry. It wasn’t until 1966, when Kurt Walz  introduced a 140N/mm² variant using special production methods, that the idea of enhancing  concrete properties began to take hold. By integrating stronger aggregates, microsilica, water reducing agents, and incorporating steel and polypropylene fibers, engineers gradually pushed the  boundaries of what concrete could achieve.

Engineering excellence with UHPC 

Ultra High Performance Concrete distinguishes itself by achieving compressive strengths between  150 and 200N/mm²—comparable to the strength of steel. Reinforced with fine steel fibers, UHPC  not only becomes ductile, reaching tensile strengths exceeding 15N/mm², but also achieves flexural tensile strengths up to 50N/mm². Its dense microstructure, virtually devoid of capillary pores, renders it highly resistant to liquids, gases, and corrosion. This property allows UHPC to serve as a protective wearing course for bridge decks without the need for additional safeguards  against chlorides, alkalis, or de-icing salts.

“The superior durability and strength of UHPC not only ensure longer-lasting structures but  also promise considerable savings in materials and maintenance over the lifespan of a project.” 

Despite its remarkable compression capabilities, UHPC remains primarily a compression material. To harness its full potential, engineers are exploring hybrid solutions such as integrating carbon fiber mats to bolster its tensile and shear capacities. Such innovations could lead to the creation of  lightweight yet robust girders and even enhance the performance of large-diameter precast  concrete piles.

Overcoming cost and workability challenges 

Even as UHPC stands out for its technical merits, widespread adoption faces two major hurdles: cost and workability. The intricate production and handling process make mass production of  UHPC less economical compared to conventional concrete. Historically, advancements like the  Bessemer and Open Hearth steel processing in the 1850s dramatically reduced costs and spurred  innovation. UHPC, too, awaits a breakthrough in construction technology that can bring down its  price and simplify its application. 

Quality remains paramount. UHPC demands specialized attention and equipment to ensure  consistency, a constraint that challenges its integration into conventional construction methods where dimensions and workability are critical. In light of these issues, the future of UHPC depends  on rethinking and reimagining how we approach design and application.

Innovating beyond traditional concrete 

The true promise of UHPC lies in its potential to foster entirely new structural concepts rather than  merely replacing regular concrete in existing designs. The historical trajectory of construction  materials teaches us that innovation often stems from “thinking outside the box.” Just as high strength wires revolutionized long-span suspension bridges and prestressed structures, UHPC may  well pave the way for novel architectural forms that fully exploit its exceptional properties. 

The cements typically used for UHPC, such as CEM I low-alkali Portland cements, offer high  sulphate resistance and low heat of hydration. These features, combined with a fine-grained mix that ensures homogeneity, contribute to UHPC’s impressive performance under external stresses.

A call for future innovation 

As engineers and architects continue to push the boundaries of what is possible, UHPC stands as a beacon of potential for the construction industry. Its high strength, durability, and innovative  applications signal a shift toward more sustainable and efficient building practices. To fully harness the capabilities of UHPC, the industry must develop new design paradigms—ones that  move beyond traditional structural forms and embrace the material’s groundbreaking properties. 

The journey of UHPC from a novel concept to a practical material reminds us that innovation is  an evolving process. With continued research and technological breakthroughs, UHPC may soon  become the cornerstone of next-generation infrastructure, echoing the visionary dreams of the past  while building the future of construction.